Heliocentrismo: diferenças entre revisões

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VAI ESTUDAR _|_ [[Geocentrismo]]
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[[Ficheiro:Heliocentric.jpg|thumb|350px|right|Universo heliocêntrico.]]
Em [[astronomia]], '''heliocentrismo''' é a teoria que o [[Sol]] está estacionário no centro do [[universo]]. A palavra vem do [[grego]] ({{lang|el|ήλιος}} ''[[Helios]]'' = sol e {{lang|el|κέντρον}} ''kentron'' = centro). Historicamente, o heliocentrismo era oposto ao [[geocentrismo]], que colocava a Terra no centro. Apesar das discussões da possibilidade do heliocentrismo datarem da [[antiguidade clássica]], somente 1.800 anos mais tarde, no [[século XVI]], que o matemático e astrônomo polonês [[Nicolau Copérnico]] apresentou um modelo matemático preditivo completo de um sistema heliocêntrico, que mais tarde foi elaborado e expandido por [[Johannes Kepler]].

== Desenvolvimento do heliocentrismo ==
Para qualquer um que se coloque em pé e observe o céu, parece claro que a [[Terra]] permanece em seu lugar enquanto que tudo no céu nasce e se põe ou dá a volta uma vez por dia. Observações feitas por tempos mais longos apresentam movimentos mais complicados. O [[Sol]] descreve um círculo lentamente pelo curso de um ano, os [[planeta]]s possuem movimentos similares, mas algumas vezes eles movem-se na direção oposta, em um [[movimento retrógrado aparente|movimento retrógrado]].

[[Ficheiro:geoz wb en.svg|thumb|400px|esquerda|Heliocentrismo (painel inferior) em comparação com o modelo geocêntrico (painel superior)]]
Conforme aumentou a compreensão destes movimentos, eles exigiam descrições cada vez mais elaboradas, a mais famosa foi o [[sistema ptolomaico]], formulado no século II, que, apesar de considerado incorreto atualmente, ainda servia para calcular a posição correta dos planetas com um grau moderado de precisão, apesar da exigência de [[Ptolomeu]] que [[deferente e epiciclo|epiciclos]] não fossem excêntricos causassem problemas desnecessários para os movimentos de [[Marte (planeta)|Marte]] e especialmente [[Mercúrio (planeta)|Mercúrio]]. O próprio ptolomeu, em seu ''[[Almagesto]]'', apontou que qualquer modelo para descrever o movimento dos planetas era apenas um dispositivo matemático e, como não havia forma de saber qual era verdadeiro, o modelo mais simples que obtivesse os números corretos deveria ser usado; entretanto, ele mesmo escolheu o modelo geocêntrico epicíclico e em seu trabalho principal, "[[Hipótese Planetária]]", tratou seus modelos como suficientemente reais para que as distâncias da [[Lua]], Sol, planetas e estrelas fossem determináveis tratando as esferas celestiais das órbitas como realidades contíguas. Isto fazia com que a distância das estrelas fosse menor que 20 [[unidade astronômica|unidades astronômicas]]<ref>Dennis Duke, [http://people.scs.fsu.edu/~dduke/ptolemy.html Ptolemy's Universe]</ref>—um retrocesso na ciência já que o esquema heliocêntrico de [[Aristarco]] já havia, séculos antes, necessariamente colocado as estrelas a pelo menos duas ordens de magnitude mais distantes.

=== Discussões filosóficas ===
Argumentos filosóficos do heliocentrismo envolvem declarações genéricas de que o [[Sol]], orbitado por alguns ou todos os planetas, está no centro do [[Universo]], e os argumentos que sustentam essas alegações. Essas ideias podem ser encontradas em textos [[sânscrito]]s, [[Língua grega|gregos]], [[Língua árabe|árabes]] e [[latim|latinos]]. Poucas destas fontes originais, entretanto, desenvolveram alguma técnica para calcular qualquer consequência observacional de suas ideias heliocêntricas.

==== Índia Antiga ====
:Veja [[Astronomia indiana]]

De acordo com [[Dick Teresi]], os primeiros traços da ideia [[contra-intuitiva]] de que era a [[Terra]] que estava se movendo e que o [[Sol]] estava no centro do sistema solar são encontrados em textos [[Vedas|védicos]] e pós-védicos<ref>{{cite book |author=Sidharth, B. G. |title=The Celestial Key to the Vedas: Discovering the Origins of the World's Oldest Civilization |publisher=Inner Traditions International |location=Rochester, Vt |year=1999 |pages=45 |ISBN=0-89281-753-4 }}</ref><ref name=Teresi>Teresi (2002).{{Verify credibility|date=September 2007}}</ref> como o ''[[Shatapatha Brahmana]]'', que tinha, de acordo com [[Subhash Kak]]:
{{quote2|"O sol está estacionado pela eternidade, no meio do dia. [...] Do sol, que está sempre em um e o mesmo lugar, não há nem nascer nem poente."<ref name=Kak>Kak (2000), p. 31.</ref>}}
A interpretação de Kak é que isto significa que o Sol está estacionário, portanto a Terra está se movendo em torno do mesmo.
O texto astronômico de [[Yajnavalkya]], [[Shatapatha Brahmana]] (8.7.3.10) declara que {{quote2|O sol prende estes mundos - a terra, os planetas, a atmosfera - a si mesmo em uma linha.<ref>cite=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbr/sbe43/sbe4328.htm|Title=Satapatha Brahmana|Author=Julius Eggeling (Translation)|accessdate=2009-08-05</ref>}}
Yajnavalkya reconhecia que o Sol era muito maior que a Terra, o que pode ter influenciado seu conceito heliocêntrico. Ele mediu de forma precisa as distâncias da Terra ao Sol e à Lua como 108 vezes o diâmetro destes corpos celestiais, um valor bastante próximo dos valores modernos de 107,6 para o Sol e 110,6 para a Lua.

==== Grécia Antiga ====
[[Ficheiro:Aristarchus working.jpg|thumb|direita|350px|Os cálculos de [[Aristarco de Samos|Aristarco]], no [[século III a.C.]], dos tamanhos relativos da [[Terra]], [[Sol]] e[[Lua]], a partir de uma cópia grega do [[século X]]]]
:Veja [[Astronomia grega]]
No [[século IV a.C.]], [[Aristóteles]] escreveu que:
:''"No centro, eles [os [[Escola pitagórica|pitagóricos]]] dizem, há [[fogo]], e a Terra é uma das estrelas, criando noite e dia pelo seu movimento circular em torno do centro."'' [[Aristóteles]] - ''[[Sobre os Céus]]'', [http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/heavens/book2.html Livro Dois], Capítulo 13

As razões para esta localização eram [[Filosofia grega|filosóficas]], baseados nos [[elemento clássico|elementos clássicos]], em vez de científicos. O fogo era mais precioso que a terra na opinião dos pitagoreanos, e por este motivo o fogo deveria estar no centro. Entretanto, o fogo central não é o Sol. Os pitagóricos acreditavam que o Sol orbitava o fogo central junto com tudo o mais. Aristóteles rejeitava este argumento e advogava o geocentrismo.

[[Heráclides do Ponto]] ([[século IV a.C.]]) explicou o movimento diário aparente da esfera celestial pela rotação da Terra.

;Aristarco de Samos

A primeira pessoa a apresentar um argumento para o sistema heliocêntrico, entretanto, foi [[Aristarco de Samos]] (''c''. [[270 a.C.]]). Como [[Eratóstenes]], [[Aristarco]] calculou o tamanho da Terra, e mediu [[Os Tamanhos e as Distâncias, de Aristarco|tamanho e distância da Lua e do Sol]], em um tratado que sobreviveu à passagem do tempo. A partir de suas estimativas, ele concluiu que o Sol era seis ou sete vezes mais largo que a Terra e portanto centenas de vezes mais volumoso. Seus escritos sobre o sistema heliocêntrico se perderam, mas alguma informação é conhecida a partir de descrições que sobreviveram e de comentários de críticos contemporâneos, como [[Arquimedes]]. Já foi sugerido que seu cálculo do tamanho relativo da Terra e o Sol levou Aristarco a concluir que fazia mais sentido que a Terra estivesse se movendo do que o enorme Sol estar se movendo em seu entorno. Apesar do texto original ter sido perdido, uma referência no livro de [[Arquimedes]], ''[[O Contador de Areias]]'' descreve outro trabalho de Aristarco em que ele avançou uma [[hipótese]] alternativa do modelo heliocêntrico. Escreveu Arquimedes:

:''O rei Gelon sabe que 'universo' é o nome dado pela maioria dos astrônomos à esfera ao centro da qual está a [[Terra]], e seu raio é igual à linha reta entre o centro do [[Sol]] e o centro da Terra. É esta a noção comum que você ouviu dos astrônomos. Mas Aristarco escreveu um livro consistindo de certas hipóteses, onde, aparentemente, como consequência das suposições feitas, que o universo é muitas vezes maior que o 'universo' mencionado acima. Suas hipóteses são que as estelas fixas e o Sol permanecem imóveis, que a Terra gira em torno do Sol na circunferência de um círculo, com o Sol no meio da órbita, e que a esfera de [[estrela]]s fixas, situada com o centro no mesmo do Sol, é tão grande que o círculo em que ele supõe a Terra se move tem uma proporção ao centro das estrelas fixas como o centro da esfera a sua superfície.''<ref>Arenarius, I., 4–7</ref>

Aristarco, portanto, acreditava que as estrelas estavam muito distantes, e via isto como a razão pela qual não havia uma [[paralaxe]] visível, ou seja, um movimento observável das estrelas relativas uma às outras conforme a Terra orbitava o Sol. As estrelas estão de fato muito mais longe que a distância que era imaginada nos tempos antigos, e é esta a razão pela qual a paralaxe estelar só é detectável com [[telescópio]]s.

[[Arquimedes]] dizia que Aristarco fez a distância das estrelas maior, sugerindo que ele estava respondendo a objeção natural que o heliocentrismo requer oscilações de [[paralaxe]] estelar. Aparentemente ele concordou com este ponto, mas colocou as estrelas muito distantes para tornar o movimento paralático invisivelmente minúsculo. Desta forma o heliocentrismo abriu o caminho para a percepção de que o universo era muito maior que o que o geocentrismo ensinava.<ref>D.Rawlins, [http://www.dioi.org/vols/we0.pdf Aristarchus's vast universe: ancient vision], contends that all of Aristarchus's huge astronomical estimates of distance were based upon his gauging the limit of human visual discrimination to be approximately a ten thousandth of a radian which is about right.</ref>

;Seleuco de Selêucia

Deve ser notado que [[Plutarco]] menciona os "seguidores de Aristarco" de passagem, então é provável que houve outros astrônomos no período clássico que também desposaram o heliocentrismo cujo trabalho está agora perdido para nós. Entretanto, o único outro astrônomo da antiguidade que é conhecido pelo nome que sabe-se ter apoiado o modelo heoicoêntrico de [[Aristarco de Samos]] foi Seleuco de Selêucia, um [[Astronomia babilônica|astrônomo mesopotâmico]] que viveu um século após Aristarco. Seleuco adotou o sistema heliocêntrico de Aristarco e diz-se que ele havia provado a teoria heliocêntrica.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.ics.forth.gr/~vsiris/ancient_greeks/hellinistic_period.html |title=Index of Ancient Greek Philosophers-Scientists |publisher=Ics.forth.gr |date= |accessdate=2009-08-08}}</ref> De acordo com [[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden]], Seleuco pode ter provado a teoria heliocêntrica determinando as constantes de um modelo [[geometria|geométrico]] para a teoria heliocêntrica e desenvolvendo métodos para computar posições planetárias usando este modelo. Ele pode ter usado métodos [[trigonometria|trigonométricos]] primitivos que estavam disponíveis em sua época, já que era contemporâneo de [[Hiparco]].<ref>[[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden]] (1987). "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' '''500''' (1), 525–545 [527–529].</ref> Um fragmento de um trabalho de Seleuco, que apoiava o modelo heliocêntrico de Aristarco no [[século II a.C.]] sobreviveu em uma tradução árabe, que foi referido por [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|Rhazes]] (b. 865).<ref>{{citation|title=Studies in Arabic versions of Greek texts and in mediaeval science|volume=2|author=[[Shlomo Pines]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers]]|year=1986|isbn=9652236268|pages=viii & 201–17}}</ref>

====Mundo Católico====
Houve algumas especulações ocasionais sobre o heliocentrismo, na Europa, antes de [[Nicolau Copérnico]]. Na [[Cartago|Cartago Romana]], [[Martianus Capella]] ([[século V]]) expressou a opinião que os planetas [[Vênus (planeta)|Vênus]] e [[Mercúrio (planeta)|Mercúrio]] não orbitavam a [[Terra]], mas em vez disso circulavam o [[Sol]].<ref>William Stahl, trans., ''Martianus Capella and the Seven Liberal Arts'', vol. 2, ''The Marriage of Philology and Mercury'', 854, 857, (New York: Columbia Univ. Pr, 1977, pp. 332–3</ref> Copérnico mencionou-o como uma influência de seu próprio trabalho.<ref>Bruce S. Eastwood, "Kepler as Historian of Science: Precursors of Copernican Heliocentrism according to ''De revolutionibus'' I, 10", ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society'', 126 (1982): 367–394.</ref>

Durante o final da [[Idade Média]], o bispo [[Nicole Oresme]] discutiu a possibilidade da Terra girar em seu eixo, enquanto o cardeal [[Nicolau de Cusa]] em seu ''[[De Docta Ignorantia|A Douta Ignorância]]'' perguntou se havia qualquer razão para afirmar que o Sol (ou qualquer outro ponto) era o centro do [[Universo]]. Em paralelo a uma definição mística de Deus, Cusa escreveu que "assim o tecido do mundo (''machina mundi'') ''quasi'' terá seu centro em todo lugar e a circunferência em lugar nenhum."<ref>Nicholas of Cusa, ''De docta ignorantia'', 2.12, p. 103, cited in Koyré (1957), p. 17.</ref>

==== Oriente Médio ====
[[Ficheiro:Ghotb2.jpg|thumb|[[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi|Qutb al-Din]], no [[século XIII]], discutiu se o heliocentrismo era possível.]]
:Veja [[Astronomia babilônica]] e [[Astronomia islâmica]]
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==== Middle East ====
[[Ficheiro:Ghotb2.jpg|thumb|[[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi|Qutb al-Din]], 13th century AD, discussed whether heliocentrism was a possibility.]]
{{See|Babylonian astronomy|Islamic astronomy}}

The [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] astronomer [[Seleucus of Seleucia]] (b. 190 BC)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000eaa..bookE3998 |title=Seleucus of Seleucia (c. 190 BC-?) |doi=10.1888/0333750888 |publisher=Adsabs.harvard.edu |date= |accessdate=2009-08-08}}</ref> adopted the heliocentric system of [[Aristarchus of Samos]], and according to [[Plutarch]], may have even proved it. His proposed proof may have been related to his observations of the phenomenon of [[tide]]s. Indeed Seleucus correctly theorized that tides were caused by the Moon, although he believed that the interaction was mediated by the [[Earth's atmosphere]]. He noted that the tides varied in time and strength in different parts of the world.

In the medieval [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]], due to the scientific dominance of the [[Geocentric model#Claudius Ptolemy|Ptolemaic system]] in early [[Islamic astronomy]], most [[List of Muslim astronomers|Muslim astronomers]] accepted the geocentric model.<ref>"All Islamic astronomers from Thabit ibn Qurra in the ninth century to Ibn al-Shatir in the fourteenth, and all natural philosophers from al-Kindi to Averroes and later, are known to have accepted … the Greek picture of the world as consisting of two spheres of which one, the celestial sphere … concentrically envelops the other." A. I. Sabra, "Configuring the Universe: Aporetic, Problem Solving, and Kinematic Modeling as Themes of Arabic Astronomy," ''Perspectives on Science'' 6.3 (1998): 288–330, at pp. 317–18</ref> However, several Muslim scholars had discussions on whether the Earth moved and tried to explain how this might be possible.<ref name=Teresietal/>

[[Ibn al-Haytham|Alhacen]] (Ibn al-Haytham) wrote a scathing critique of [[Ptolemy]]'s model in his ''Doubts on Ptolemy'' (c. 1028), which some interpret to imply he was criticizing Ptolemy's geocentrism,<ref name=Qadir>Qadir (1989), p. 5–10.</ref> but many agree that he was actually criticizing the details of Ptolemy's model rather than his geocentrism.<ref>{{Citar web |url=http://setis.library.usyd.edu.au/stanford/entries/copernicus/index.html |título=Nicolaus Copernicus, [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] (2004). |língua= |autor= |obra= |data= |acessodata=}}</ref> Alhacen did, however, later propose the [[Earth's rotation]] on its axis in ''The Model of the Motions'' (c. 1038).<ref>Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", ''Arabic Sciences and Philosophy'' '''17''', p. 7–55. [[Cambridge University Press]].</ref> In 1030, the Persian scientist and astronomer [[Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī|Biruni]] discussed the Indian astronomical theories of [[Aryabhata]], [[Brahmagupta]] and [[Varahamihira]] in his ''Indica''. (Al-)Biruni agreed with the [[Earth's rotation]] about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the heliocentric and [[geocentric model]]s,<ref>Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed [[Hossein Nasr]]", ''Speculum'' '''40''' (4), p. 744–746.</ref> he noted that heliocentrism was a philosophical problem, rather than a mathematical problem.<ref name=Saliba>Saliba (1999).</ref> Abu Said [[al-Sijzi]], a contemporary of Biruni, suggested the possible movement of the Earth around the Sun, which Biruni did not reject. [[Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi|Qutb al-Din]] (b. 1236), in his ''The Limit of Accomplishment concerning Knowledge of the Heavens'', also discussed whether heliocentrism was a possibility.<ref name=Baker>A. Baker, L. Chapter (2002).</ref>

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[[Ficheiro:Nicholas of Cusa.jpg|right|thumb|[[Nicolau de Cusa]], [[século XV]], questionou se havia qualquer razão para afirmar o heliocentrismo.]]

==== Europa Medieval ====
Houve algumas especulações ocasionais sobre o heliocentrismo na Europa antes de [[Nicolau Copérnico]]. [[Martianus Capella]] propôs um modelo heliocêntrico para [[Vênus (planeta)|Vênus]] e [[Mercúrio (planeta)|Mercúrio]], que foi discutido por vários comentadores anônimos do [[século IX]].<ref>{{cite book
|last = Eastwood
|first = Bruce S.
|title = Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronmomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance
|publisher = Brill
|date = 2007
|location = Leiden
|pages = 244–259
|isbn = 978-90-04-16186-3}}</ref> Durante o final da [[Idade Média]], o bispo [[Nicole Oresme]] discutiu a possibilidade de que a Terra girasse em seu exio, enquanto o cardeal ([[Nicolau de Cusa]] em seu ''[[De Docta Ignorantia]]'' perguntou se havia qualquer razão para afirmar que o Sol (ou qualquer outro ponto) era o centro do universo. Em paralelo com uam definição mística de Deus, Cusa escreveu que "Assim o tecido do mundo (''machina mundi'') irá ''quasi'' ter seucentro em todo lugar e circunferência em lugar nenhum."<ref>Nicholas of Cusa, ''De docta ignorantia'', 2.12, p. 103, cited in Koyré (1957), p. 17.</ref>
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==== Medieval Europe ====
There were occasional speculations about heliocentrism in Europe before Copernicus. [[Martianus Capella]] had proposed a heliocentric model for Mercury and Venus, which was discussed in the [[Early Middle Ages]] by various anonymous [[ninth-century]] commentators.<ref>{{cite book | last = Eastwood | first = Bruce S. | title = Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronmomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance | publisher = Brill | date = 2007 | location = Leiden | pages = 244-259 | isbn = 978-90-04-16186-3}}</ref> During the [[Late Middle Ages]], Bishop [[Nicole Oresme]] discussed the possibility that the Earth rotated on its axis, while Cardinal [[Nicholas of Cusa]] in his ''[[De Docta Ignorantia|Learned Ignorance]]'' asked whether there was any reason to assert that the Sun (or any other point) was the center of the universe. In parallel to a mystical definition of God, Cusa wrote that "Thus the fabric of the world (''machina mundi'') will ''quasi'' have its center everywhere and circumference nowhere."<ref>Nicholas of Cusa, ''De docta ignorantia'', 2.12, p. 103, cited in Koyré (1957), p. 17.</ref>

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=== Astronomia matemática ===
Na astronomia [[matemática]], modelos do heliocentrismo envolvem sistemas de cálculo matemático que estão ligados ao modelo heliocêntrico e onde as posições dos planetas podem ser derivadas. O primeiro sistema computacional explicitamente ligado ao modelo heliocêntrico foi o [[Heliocentrismo copernicano|modelo copernicano]] descrito por [[Copérnico]], mas existiram sistemas computacionais anteriores que implicavam alguma forma de heliocentricidade, notavelmente o modelo de [[Aryabhata]], que possuía parâmetros astronômicos que foram interpretados como implicando uma forma de heliocentrismo. Vários [[Astronomia islâmica|astrônomos muçulmanos]] também desenvolveram sistemas computacionais com parâmetros astronômicos compatíveis com o heliocentrismo, como apontado por [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī|Biruni]], mas o conceito de heliocentrismo era considerado um problema filosófico em vez de um problema matemático. Seus parâmetros astronômicos foram mais tarde adaptados no modelo copernicano em um contexto heliocêntrico.

==== Índia Medieval ====
[[Ficheiro:2064 aryabhata-crp.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aryabhata]], [[século V]], desenvolveu um modelo planetário computacional que tem sido interpretado como heliocêntrico.]]
[[Aryabhata]] (476–550), em sua ''magnum opus'' ''[[Aryabhatiya]]'', propôs um sistema computacional baseado em um modelo planetário que tinha a suposição de que a [[Terra]] girava sobre seu eixo e os períodos dos planetas eram dados em relação ao [[Sol]]. Alguns interpretaram este modelo como sendo um modelo heliocêntrico,<ref>[[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden|B. L. van der Waerden]] (1970), ''Das heliozentrische System in der griechischen,persischen und indischen Astronomie,'' Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zürich, Zürich: Kommissionsverlag Leeman AG. ([[cf.]] Noel Swerdlow (June 1973), "Review: A Lost Monument of Indian Astronomy", ''Isis'' '''64''' (2), p. 239–243.)[[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden|B. L. van der Waerden]] (1987), "The heliocentric system in Greek, Persian, and Indian astronomy", in "From deferent to equant: a volume of studies in the history of science in the ancient and medieval near east in honor of E. S. Kennedy", ''[[New York Academy of Sciences]]'' '''500''', p. 525–546. ([[cf.]] Dennis Duke (2005), "The Equant in India: The Mathematical Basis of Ancient Indian Planetary Models", ''Archive for History of Exact Sciences'' '''59''', p. 563–576.).</ref><ref>Thurston (1994), p. 188.
{{quote|"Not only did Aryabhata believe that the earth rotates, but there are glimmerings in his system (and other similar systems) of a possible underlying theory in which the earth (and the planets) orbits the sun, rather than the sun orbiting the earth. The evidence is that the basic planetary periods are relative to the sun."}}</ref><ref>[[Lucio Russo]] (2004), ''The Forgotten Revolution: How Science Was Born in 300 BC and Why It Had To Be Reborn'', [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]], Berlin, ISBN 978-3-540-20396-4. ([[cf.]] Dennis Duke (2005), "The Equant in India: The Mathematical Basis of Ancient Indian Planetary Models", ''Archive for History of Exact Sciences'' '''59''', p. 563–576.)</ref> mas esta interpretação tem sido motivo de disputa por outros.<ref>Noel Swerdlow (June 1973), "Review: A Lost Monument of Indian Astronomy" [review of [[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden|B. L. van der Waerden]], ''Das heliozentrische System in der griechischen, persischen und indischen Astronomie''], ''Isis'' '''64''' (2), p. 239–243.{{quote|"Such an interpretation, however, shows a complete misunderstanding of Indian planetary theory and is flatly contradicted by every word of Aryabhata's description."}}</ref><ref>David Pingree (1973), "The Greek Influence on Early Islamic Mathematical Astronomy", ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' '''93''' (1), p. 32.{{quote|"The reader should note that, in writing this survey, I have disregarded the rather divergent views of [[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden|B. L. van der Waerden]]; these have been most recently expounded in his ''Das heliozentrische System in der griechischen, persischen und indischen Astronomie'', Zürich 1970."}}</ref><ref>Dennis Duke (2005), "The Equant in India: The Mathematical Basis of Ancient Indian Planetary Models", ''Archive for History of Exact Sciences'' '''59''', p. 563–576 [http://people.scs.fsu.edu/~dduke/india8.pdf].
{{quote|"Thus for both outer and inner planets, the mean motion given is the heliocentric mean motion of the planet. There is no textual evidence that the Indians knew anything about this, and there is an overwhelming amount of textual evidence confirming their geocentric point of view. Some commentators, most notably van der Waerden, have however argued in favor of an underlying ancient Greek heliocentric basis, of which the Indians were unaware. See, e.g. B. L. van der Waerden, "The heliocentric system in greek, persian, and indian astronomy", in ''From deferent to equant: a volume of studies in the history of science in the ancient and medieval near east in honor of E. S. Kennedy'', Annals of the new york academy of sciences, 500 (1987), 525–546. More recently this idea is developed in about as much detail as the scant evidence allows in L. Russo, ''The Forgotten Revolution'' (2004)."}}</ref> Ele também foi o primeiro a descobrir que os planetas seguem órbitas [[elipse|elípticas]], nas quais ele calculou com precisão várias constantes astronômicas, como os períodos dos planetas, horas de eclipses solares e lunares, e o movimento instantâneo da Lua (expresso como uma [[equação diferencial]]).<ref name=Teresi/><ref name=Teresietal>Teresi, et al. (2002).</ref><ref name=Joseph>Joseph (2000).</ref><ref>Thurston (1994).</ref> Entre os primeiros seguidores do modelo de Aryabhata estavam [[Varahamihira]], [[Brahmagupta]] e [[Bhaskara II]]. Traduções em árabe do ''Aryabhatiya'' de Aryabhata estavam disponíveis no [[século VIII]], enquanto traduções para o latim já estavam disponíveis a partir do [[século XIII]], antes de Copérnico escrever o seu ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'', então é possível que o trabalho de Aryabhata tenha influenciado as idéias de Copérnico.

[[Nilakantha Somayaji]] (1444–1544), em seu ''Aryabhatiyabhasya'', um comentário sobre o ''Aryabhatiya'' de Aryabhata, desenvolveu um sistema computacional para um modelo planetário parcialmente heliocêntrico, em que os planetas orbitavam o Sol, que por sua vez orbitava a Terra, similar ao [[sistema Tychonico]] proposto mais tarde por [[Tycho Brahe]], no fim do [[século XVI]]. O sistema de Nilakantha, entretanto, era matematicamente mais eficiente que o sistema Tychonico, devido ao fato de levar corretamente em conta a equação do centro e movimento latitudinal de [[Vênus (planeta)|Vênus]] e [[Mercúrio (planeta)|Mercúrio]]. A maioria dos astrônomos da escola Kerala de astronomia e matemática que seguiram-no aceitaram seu modelo planetário.<ref>George G. Joseph (2000), p. 408.</ref><ref>K. Ramasubramanian, M. D. Srinivas, M. S. Sriram (1994). "Modification of the earlier Indian planetary theory by the Kerala astronomers (c. 1500 AD) and the implied heliocentric picture of planetary motion", ''[[Current Science]]'' '''66''', p. 784–790.</ref>

==== Oriente Médio ====
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==== Middle East ====
{{See|Babylonian astronomy|Islamic astronomy}}
[[Ficheiro:Abu-Rayhan Biruni 1973 Afghanistan post stamp.jpg|thumb|right|11th-century Persian scientist, [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī|Biruni]], suggested that if the [[Earth's rotation|Earth rotated]] on its axis this would be consistent with astronomical theory. He discussed heliocentrism but considered it was a philosophical problem.]]

In the 2nd century BC, the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic]] astronomer [[Seleucus of Seleucia]] is said to have proved the heliocentric theory.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ics.forth.gr/~vsiris/ancient_greeks/hellinistic_period.html |title=Index of Ancient Greek Philosophers-Scientists |publisher=Ics.forth.gr |date= |accessdate=2009-08-08}}</ref> According to [[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden]], Seleucus may have proved the heliocentric theory by determining the constants of a [[geometry|geometric]] model for the heliocentric theory and by developing methods to compute planetary positions using this model. He may have used [[trigonometry|trigonometric]] methods that were available in his time, as he was a contemporary of [[Hipparchus]].<ref>[[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden]] (1987). "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' '''500''' (1), 525–545 [527–529].</ref>

In the 9th century, the Afghan astronomer [[Ja'far ibn Muhammad Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi]] developed a planetary model which can be interpreted as a heliocentric model. This is due to his [[Orbit (disambiguation)|orbital revolutions]] of the planets being given as heliocentric revolutions rather than geocentric revolutions, and the only known planetary theory in which this occurs is in the heliocentric theory. His work on planetary theory has not survived, but his astronomical data were later recorded by al-Hashimi and [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]].<ref>[[Bartel Leendert van der Waerden]] (1987). "The Heliocentric System in Greek, Persian and Hindu Astronomy", ''Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences'' '''500''' (1), 525–545 [534–537].</ref>

[[Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī|Biruni]] discussed the possibility of whether the Earth rotated about its own axis and around the Sun, but in his ''Masudic Canon'', he set forth the principles that the Earth is at the center of the universe and that it has no motion of its own.<ref>E. S. Kennedy, "Al-Bīrūnī's Masudic Canon", ''Al-Abhath'', 24 (1971): 59–81; reprinted in David A. King and Mary Helen Kennedy, ed., ''Studies in the Islamic Exact Sciences,'' Beirut, 1983, pp. 573–595.</ref> He was aware that if the Earth rotated on its axis and around the Sun, this would be consistent with his astronomical parameters,<ref name=Khwarizm>{{Citar web |url=http://muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=482 |título=Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. |língua= |autor= |obra= |data= |acessodata=}}</ref><ref>G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). ''History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations'', p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, [[UNESCO]].</ref> but he considered this a philosophical problem rather than a mathematical one.<ref name=Saliba/>

[[Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī|Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]] (b. 1201) resolved significant problems in the [[Geocentric model#Claudius Ptolemy|Ptolemaic system]] by developing the [[Tusi-couple]] as an alternative to the physically problematic [[equant]] introduced by [[Ptolemy]].<ref name=Gill>M. Gill (2005).</ref> 'Umar al-Katibi al-[[Qazwini]] (d. 1277), who also worked at the [[Maragheh observatory]], in his ''Hikmat al-'Ain'', wrote an argument for a heliocentric model, but later abandoned the model.<ref name=Baker/>[[Ibn al-Shatir]] (b. 1304) eliminated the need for an equant, proposing a system that was only approximately geocentric, rather than exactly so, having demonstrated [[trigonometry|trigonometrically]] that the Earth was not the exact center of the universe. His rectification was later used in the Copernican model, along with the earlier [[Tusi-couple]] and the Urdi lemma of [[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi]]. Their theorems played an important role in the [[Copernican heliocentrism|Copernican model of heliocentrism]],<ref name=Gill/>which was achieved by reversing the direction of the last vector connecting the Earth to the Sun.<ref name=Saliba/>In the published version of his masterwork, Copernicus also cites the theories of [[Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī|Albategni]], [[Arzachel]] and [[Averroes]] as influences,<ref name=Covington>Covington (2007).</ref> while the works of [[Ibn al-Haytham|Alhacen]] and [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī|Biruni]] were also known in Europe at the time.<ref name=Qadir/>

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==== Europa Renascentista ====
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==== Renaissance Europe ====
{{Main|Copernican heliocentrism}}
[[Ficheiro:Mikolaj Kopernik.jpg|thumb|right|[[Nicolaus Copernicus]], 16th century, described the first computational system explicitly tied to a heliocentric model.]]

In the 16th century, [[Nicolaus Copernicus]]'s ''[[De revolutionibus]]'' presented a full discussion of a heliocentric model of the universe in much the same way as [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'' had presented his geocentric model in the 2nd century. Copernicus discussed the philosophical implications of his proposed system, elaborated it in full geometrical detail, used selected astronomical observations to derive the parameters of his model, and wrote astronomical tables which enabled one to compute the past and future positions of the stars and planets. In doing so, Copernicus moved heliocentrism from philosophical speculation to predictive geometrical astronomy. This theory resolved the issue of planetary retrograde motion by arguing that such motion was only perceived and apparent, rather than [[reality|real]]: it was a [[parallax]] effect, as a car that one is passing seems to move backwards against the horizon. This issue was also resolved in the geocentric [[Tychonic system]]; the latter, however, while eliminating the major [[epicycle]]s, retained as a physical reality the irregular back-and-forth motion of the planets, which Kepler characterized as a "[[pretzel]]."{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}

Copernicus cited Aristarchus in an early (unpublished) manuscript of ''De Revolutionibus'' (which still survives) so he was clearly aware of at least one previous proponent of the heliocentric thesis. However, in the published version he restricts himself to noting that in works by [[Cicero]] he had found an account of the theories of [[Hicetas]] and that [[Plutarch]] had provided him with an account of the [[Pythagoreans]] [[Heraclides Ponticus]], [[Philolaus]], and [[Ecphantus]]. These authors had proposed a moving earth, which did not, however, revolve around a central sun.

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=== Reações religiosas ao heliocentrismo copernicano ===
Na [[King James Version|bíblia do Rei James]], Crônicas 16:30 declara que "o mundo também deve ser estável, não se move". O Salmo 104:5 diz ''[o Senhor] Quem lançou as bases da terra, que não devem ser removidos para sempre. Eclesiastes 1:5 declara que "o [[Sol]] nasce, e se põe, e volta para o lugar onde estava.''

[[Galileu Galilei]] defendeu o [[heliocentrismo]], e alegou que eles não eram contrários a estas passagens na Escritura. Ele assumiu a posição de [[Agostinho de Hipona|Agostinho]] sobre a Bíblia: não tomar todas as passagens literalmente quando a escritura em questão é um livro de poesia e músicas, não um livro de instruções ou história. Os autores da Bíblia escreviam da perspectiva do mundo terrestre, e deste ponto de vista o sol nasce e se põe. De fato, é a rotação da Terra que dá a impressão que o Sol está se movimentando pelo céu.
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=== Religious attitudes to Copernican heliocentrism ===
In the [[King James Bible]] Chronicles 16:30 state that "the world also shall be stable, that it be not moved." Psalm 92:1 says, "[the Lord] Who laid the foundations of the earth, that it should not be removed for ever." Ecclesiastes 1:5 states that "The sun also ariseth, and the sun goeth down, and hasteth to his place where he arose."

Galileo defended heliocentrism, and claimed it was not contrary to those Scripture passages (see [[Galileo affair]]). He took [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]]'s position on Scripture: not to take every passage literally when the scripture in question is a book of poetry and songs, not a book of instructions or history. The writers of the Scripture wrote from the perspective of the terrestrial world, and from that vantage point the sun does rise and set. In fact, it is the Earth's rotation which gives the impression of the sun in motion across the sky.

One of the few pieces of information we have about the reception of Aristarchus's heliocentric system comes from a passage in [[Plutarch]]'s dialogue, ''Concerning the Face which Appears in the Orb of the Moon''. According to one of Plutarch's characters in the dialogue, the philosopher [[Cleanthes]] had held that Aristarchus should be charged with impiety for "moving the hearth of the world".<ref>Dreyer [[#Reference-Dreyer-1953|(1953,]] [http://www.us.archive.org/GnuBook/?id=historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#151 p.138)]; Plutarch [[#Reference-Plutarch-1957|(1957, p.55)]] [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/The_Face_in_the_Moon*/A.html#T923 (on-line copy available)]. According to [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Moralia/The_Face_in_the_Moon*/A.html#note36 a footnote] in the latter reference, [[Diogenes Laertius]] listed a work of Cleanthes' (apparently now lost) with the title ''Against Aristarchus'' [[#Reference-Plutarch-1957|(Plutarch, 1957, p.54)]].</ref> In fact, however, Aristarchus's heliocentrism appears to have attracted little attention, religious or otherwise, until Copernicus revived and elaborated it.<ref>Dreyer [[#Reference-Dreyer-1953|(1953,]] [http://books.google.com.au/books?id=fL-P-UQtg5EC&pg=PA139 pp.139ff)].</ref>

[[Nicolaus Copernicus]] published the definitive statement of his system in [[De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium|''De Revolutionibus'']] in 1543. Copernicus began to write it in 1506 and finished it in 1530, but did not publish it until the year of his death. Although he was in good standing with the Church and had dedicated the book to [[Pope Paul III]], the published form contained an unsigned preface by [[Andreas Osiander|Osiander]] defending the system and arguing that it was useful for computation even if its hypotheses were not necessarily true. Possibly because of that preface, the work of Copernicus inspired very little debate on whether it might be [[heresy|heretical]] during the next 60 years.

There was an early suggestion among [[Dominican Order|Dominican]]s that the teaching should be banned, but nothing came of it at the time. Some Protestants, however, voiced strong opinions during the 16th century. [[Martin Luther]] once said:

{{quote|"There is talk of a new astrologer who wants to prove that the earth moves and goes around instead of the sky, the sun, the moon, just as if somebody were moving in a carriage or ship might hold that he was sitting still and at rest while the earth and the trees walked and moved. But that is how things are nowadays: when a man wishes to be clever he must . . . invent something special, and the way he does it must needs be the best! The fool wants to turn the whole art of astronomy upside-down. However, as Holy Scripture tells us, so did Joshua bid the sun to stand still and not the earth."}}

This was reported in the context of dinner-table conversation and not a formal statement of faith. [[Melanchthon]], however, opposed the doctrine over a period of years.

Some years after the publication of ''De Revolutionibus'' [[John Calvin]] preached a sermon in which he denounced those who "pervert the course of nature" by saying that "the sun does not move and that it is the earth that revolves and that it turns".<ref>[[#Reference-Rosen-1995|Rosen (1995, p.159).]] Rosen disputes the earlier conclusion of another scholar that this was referring specifically to Copernicus's theory. According to Rosen, Calvin had very likely never heard of Copernicus and was referring instead to "the traditional geokinetic cosmology".</ref> On the other hand, Calvin is not responsible for another famous quotation which has often been misattributed to him: {{quote|"Who will venture to place the authority of Copernicus above that of the Holy Spirit?"}} It has long been established that this line cannot be found in any of Calvin's works.<ref>Rosen, Edward (1960), ''Calvin’s attitude toward Copernicus'' in ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', volume 21, no. 3, July, pp.431–441. Reprinted in [[#Reference-Rosen-1995|Rosen (1995, pp.161–171)]].</ref><ref>Gingerich, Owen (2004), ''The Book Nobody Read''. New York: Walker and Co.</ref><ref>Hooykaas, R. (1973). ''Religion and the rise of modern science''. Reprint, Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1977.</ref> It has been suggested<ref>Bye, Dan J. (2007). ''McGrath vs Russell on Calvin vs Copernicus: a case of the pot calling the kettle black?'' in ''[[The Freethinker (journal)|The Freethinker]]'', volume 127, no. 6, June, pp.8–10. [http://homepages.shu.ac.uk/~llrdjb/potkettleblack.htm Available online here.]</ref> that the quotation was originally sourced from the works of [[Lutheran]] theologian [[Abraham Calovius]].

Over time, however, the Catholic Church began to become more adamant about protecting the geocentric view.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} [[Pope Urban VIII]], who had approved the idea of Galileo's publishing a work on the two theories of the world, became hostile to Galileo.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} Over time, the Catholic Church became the primary opposition to the Heliocentric view.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}}

The favored system had been that of [[Ptolemy]],{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} in which the [[Earth]] was the center of the universe and all celestial bodies orbited it. A geocentric compromise was available in the [[Tychonic system]], in which the Sun orbited the Earth, while the planets orbited the Sun as in the Copernican model. The Jesuit astronomers in Rome were at first unreceptive to Tycho's system; the most prominent, [[Christopher Clavius|Clavius]], commented that Tycho was "confusing all of astronomy, because he wants to have Mars lower than the Sun." (Fantoli, 2003, p.&nbsp;109) But as the controversy progressed and the Church took a harder line toward Copernican ideas after 1616,{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} the Jesuits moved toward Tycho's teachings; after 1633, the use of this system was almost mandatory.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} For advancing heliocentric theory Galileo was put under house arrest for the last few years of his life.

Theologian and pastor [[Thomas Schirrmacher]], however, has argued:

{{quote|"Contrary to legend, Galileo and the Copernican system were well regarded by church officials. Galileo was the victim of his own arrogance, the envy of his colleagues, and the politics of Pope Urban VIII. He was not accused of criticizing the Bible, but disobeying a papal decree."<ref>{{cite web|last=Schirrmacher |first=Thomas |url=http://www.answersingenesis.org/tj/v14/i1/galileo.asp |title=The Galileo affair: history or heroic hagiography? |publisher=Answersingenesis.org |date= |accessdate=2009-08-08}}</ref>}}

According to J. L. Heilbron, Catholic scientists have also:

{{quote|"appreciated that the reference to heresy in connection with Galileo or Copernicus had no general or theological significance."|Heilbron (1999)}}

[[Ficheiro:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|right|In the 17th century AD [[Galileo Galilei]] opposed the [[Roman Catholic Church]] by his strong support for heliocentrism.]]

Cardinal [[Robert Bellarmine]] himself considered that Galileo's model made "excellent good sense" on the ground of mathematical simplicity; that is, as a ''hypothesis'' (see above). And he said:

{{quote|"If there were a real proof that the Sun is in the center of the universe, that the Earth is in the third sphere, and that the Sun does not go round the Earth but the Earth round the Sun, then we should have to proceed with great circumspection in explaining passages of Scripture which appear to teach the contrary, and we should rather have to say that we did not understand them than declare an opinion false which has been proved to be true. But I do not think there is any such proof since none has been shown to me."|Koestler (1959), p. 447–448}}

Therefore, he supported a ban on the teaching of the idea as anything but hypothesis. In 1616 he delivered to Galileo the papal command not to "hold or defend" the heliocentric idea.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} In the discussions leading to the ban, he was a moderate, as the Dominican party wished to forbid teaching heliocentrism in any way whatever.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} Galileo's heresy trial in 1633 involved making fine distinctions between "teaching" and "holding and defending as true".

The official opposition of the Church to heliocentrism{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} did not by any means imply opposition to all astronomy; indeed, it needed observational data to maintain its calendar. In support of this effort it allowed the cathedrals themselves to be used as solar observatories called ''[[Sundial#Precision noonmarks|meridiane]]''; i.e., they were turned into "reverse [[sundial]]s", or gigantic [[pinhole camera]]s, where the Sun's image was projected from a hole in a window in the cathedral's lantern onto a meridian line.

In 1664, [[Pope Alexander VII]] published his ''[[Index Librorum Prohibitorum]] Alexandri VII Pontificis Maximi jussu editus'' (Index of Prohibited Books, published by order of Alexander VII, [[Pontifex Maximus|P.M.]]) which included all previous condemnations of heliocentric books. {{Citation needed|date=February 2007}} An annotated copy of [[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]] by [[Isaac Newton]] was published in 1742 by Fathers le Seur and Jacquier of the Franciscan Minims, two [[Catholic]] mathematicians with a preface stating that the author's work assumed heliocentrism and could not be explained without the theory. [[Pope Benedict XIV]] suspended the ban on heliocentric works on April 16, 1757 based on Isaac Newton's work.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} [[Pope Pius VII]] approved a decree in 1822 by the [[Sacred Congregation of the Inquisition]] to allow the printing of heliocentric books in [[Rome]].

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== A visão da ciência moderna ==
A ideia que a visão heliocêntrica também não era verdadeira de uma forma mais estrita foi alcançada em passos. Que o [[Sol]] não era o centro do universo, mas uma das inumeráveis estrelas, foi advogada pelo místico [[Giordano Bruno]]. Durante o passar dos séculos [[século XVIII|XVIII]] e [[século XIX|XIX]], o status do Sol como apenas uma estrela entre muitas se tornou cada vez mais óbvio. No [[século XX]], mesmo antes da descoberta de que havia muitas [[galáxia]]s, não era mais discutido.

Mesmo se a discussão está limitada ao [[sistema solar]], o Sol não está no centro geométrico da órbita de nenhum planeta, mas no [[foco (geometria)|foco]] da órbita [[elipse|elíptica]]. Além disso, considerando que a massa de um planeta não pode ser negligenciada em comparação à massa solar, o centro de gravidade do sistema solar está levemente deslocado do centro do Sol (as massas dos planeta,s principalmente [[Júpiter (planeta)|Júpiter]], chegam a 0,14% da massa do Sol). Portanto, um hipotético astrônomo em um [[planeta extrasolar]] iria observar um "balanço" em sua percepção do movimento do Sol.

O abandono do conceito de "repouso" é relacionado ao princípio da [[relatividade geral|relatividade]]. Ao mesmo tempo, assumindo um universo não limitado, ficou claro que não há uma ''posição'' privilegiada no espaço, até a apresentação da teoria da [[relatividade restrita]] por [[Albert Einstein]], pelo menos a existência de uma classe privilegiada de sistemas inerciais absolutamente ''em repouso'' era assumida, em particular na forma de uma hipótese do [[éter luminífero]]. Algumas formas do [[princípio de Mach]] consideram o referencial em repouso com as massas do Universo como tendo propriedades especiais.
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== The view of modern science ==
The thinking that the heliocentric view was also not true in a strict sense was achieved in steps. That the Sun was not the center of the universe, but one of innumerable stars, was strongly advocated by the mystic [[Giordano Bruno]]. Over the course of the 18th and 19th centuries, the status of the Sun as merely one star among many became increasingly obvious. By the 20th century, even before the discovery that there are many galaxies, it was no longer an issue.

Even if the discussion is limited to the [[solar system]], the sun is not at the geometric center of any planet's orbit, but rather at one [[focus (geometry)|focus]] of the [[ellipse|elliptical]] orbit. Furthermore, to the extent that a planet's mass cannot be neglected in comparison to the Sun's mass, the center of gravity of the solar system is displaced slightly away from the center of the Sun. (The masses of the planets, mostly [[Jupiter]], amount to 0.14% of that of the Sun.) Therefore a hypothetical astronomer on an [[extrasolar planet]] would observe a "wobble" in his perception of the Sun's motion.

Giving up the whole concept of being "at rest" is related to the [[principle of relativity]]. While, assuming an unbounded universe, it was clear there is no privileged ''position'' in space, until postulation of the [[special theory of relativity]] by [[Albert Einstein]], at least the existence of a privileged class of inertial systems absolutely ''at rest'' was assumed, in particular in the form of the hypothesis of the [[luminiferous aether]]. Some forms of [[Mach's principle]] consider the frame at rest with respect to the masses in the universe to have special properties.

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=== Uso moderno de ''geocêntrico'' e ''heliocêntrico'' ===
Nos cálculos modernos, a origem e orientação de um sistema de coordenadas geralmente precisam ser selecionados, por razões práticas, e nestes sistemas a origem na massa, massa solar ou centro de massa do sistema solar são frequentemente selecionadas. Entretanto, estas seleções de coordenadas possui apenas implicações práticas e não filosóficas ou físicas.

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=== Modern use of ''geocentric'' and ''heliocentric'' ===
In modern calculations, the origin and orientation of a coordinate system often have to be selected, for practical reasons, and in such systems the origin in the mass, solar mass or the center of mass of the solar system are frequently selected. However, such selection of coordinates has only practical implications and not philosophical or physical ones.

{{Ref-section}}

== {{Ver também}} ==
* [[Geocentrism]]
* [[History of astronomy]]
* [[Aristarchus of Samos]]
* [[Kant]]

== Notas ==
{{reflist|2}}

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
* Ajram, K. (1992). ''Miracle of Islamic Science'', Appendix B. Knowledge House Publishers. ISBN 0911119434.
* Baker, A. and Chapter, L. (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy", ''Philosophia Islamica''.
* [[Madame Blavatsky|Blavatsky, Helena P.]] (1877). ''[[Isis Unveiled]]''. [[Theosophical Society in America|Theosophical University Press]]. ISBN 0-911500-03-0.
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* {{cite book | title= A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler
| author= [[J. L. E. Dreyer|Dreyer, J.L.E.]]
| publisher= Dover Publications
| year= 1953
| url=http://www.archive.org/details/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft
| location= New York, NY
| ref=Reference-Dreyer-1953}}
* Fantoli, Annibale (2003). ''Galileo—For Copernicanism and the Church'', 3rd English edition, ''tr.'' George V. Coyne, SJ. Vatican Observatory Publications, Notre Dame, IN. ISBN 88-209-7427-4.
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* [[Martin Haug|Haug, Martin]] (1863). ''The Aitareya Brahmanam of the Rigveda, Containing the Earliest Speculations of the Brahmans on the Meaning of the Sacrificial Prayers''. ISBN 0-404-57848-9.
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{{col-2}}
* [[Arthur Koestler|Koestler, Arthur]], (1959) ''The Sleepwalkers: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe'', Penguin Books; 1986 edition: ISBN 0-14-055212-X, 1990 reprint: ISBN 0-14-019246-8
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| author= [[Plutarch]]
| publisher= William Heinemann
| others= Loeb Classical Library edition, translated by Harold Cherniss and William C. Helmbold
| year= 1957
| location= London
| ref=Reference-Plutarch-1957}}
* Qadir, Asghar (1989). ''Relativity: An Introduction to the Special Theory''. World Scientific. ISBN 9971506122.
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| author= Rosen, Edward
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* Teresi, Dick (2002). ''Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science - from the Babylonians to the Maya''. [[Simon & Schuster, Inc.|Simon & Schuster]], New York. ISBN 0-684-83718-8.
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* Walker, Christopher, ed. (1996). ''Astronomy before the telescope''. London: British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-1746-3
{{col-end}}
</div>

-->
== {{Ver também}} ==
* [[Geocentrismo]]
* [[Nicolau Copérnico]]
* [[Galileu Galilei]]
* [[Giordano Bruno]]
* [[Johannes Kepler]]
* [[Tycho Brahe]]
* [[Aristarco de Samos]]
* [[Immanuel Kant]]
{{ref-section}}
{{Portal3|Ciência|Astronomia}}

[[Categoria:Astronomia]]
[[Categoria:História da astronomia]]

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[[bn:সূর্যকেন্দ্রিকতাবাদ]]
[[ca:Model heliocèntric]]
[[cs:Heliocentrismus]]
[[da:Heliocentrisk]]
[[de:Heliozentrisches Weltbild]]
[[en:Heliocentrism]]
[[eo:Suncentrismo]]
[[es:Teoría heliocéntrica]]
[[et:Heliotsentriline maailmasüsteem]]
[[eu:Heliozentrismo]]
[[fi:Aurinkokeskinen maailmankuva]]
[[fr:Héliocentrisme]]
[[fy:Heliosintrisme]]
[[gl:Teoría heliocéntrica]]
[[he:המודל ההליוצנטרי]]
[[hu:Heliocentrikus világkép]]
[[id:Heliosentrisme]]
[[is:Sólmiðjukenningin]]
[[it:Sistema eliocentrico]]
[[ja:地動説]]
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[[la:Theoria heliocentrica]]
[[lb:Heliozentrescht Weltbild]]
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[[th:แนวคิดดวงอาทิตย์เป็นศูนย์กลางจักรวาล]]
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[[vi:Thuyết nhật tâm]]
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Revisão das 00h08min de 28 de abril de 2011

VAI ESTUDAR _|_ Geocentrismo

Obtida de "https://pt.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heliocentrismo&oldid=25011098"