Usuária:Dianakc/Testes3

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[1] [2] [1]:29 [3]


Antistenes[editar | editar código-fonte]

A história do cinismo tradicionalmente começa com Antístenes (c. 445–365 a.C.),[4][1]:6 que foi um contemporâneo mais velho de Platão e um aluno de Sócrates. Cerca de 25 anos mais jovem, Antístenes foi um dos mais importantes discípulos de Sócrates.[5] Apesar do autores clássicos posteriores terem pouca dúvida sobre reconhecê-lo como o fundador do cinismo,[6] seus pontos de vista filosóficos parecem ser mais complexos do que as simplicidades posteriores do cinismo puro. Na lista de obras atribuídas a Antístenes por Diógenes Laércio,[7] writings on Language, Dialogue and Literature far outnumber those on Ethics or Politics,[8] although they may reflect how his philosophical interests changed with time.[9] It is certainly true that Antisthenes preached a life of poverty:

I have enough to eat till my hunger is stayed, to drink till my thirst is sated; to clothe myself as well; and out of doors not [even] Callias there, with all his riches, is more safe than I from shivering; and when I find myself indoors, what warmer shirting do I need than my bare walls?[10]

Diogenes of Sinope[editar | editar código-fonte]

Diogenes of Sinope (c. 412–323 BC) dominates the story of Cynicism like no other figure. He originally went to Athens, fleeing his home city, after he and his father, who was in charge of the mint at Sinope, got into trouble for falsifying the coinage.[11] (The phrase "defacing the currency" later became proverbial in describing Diogenes' rejection of conventional values.)[12] Later tradition claimed that Diogenes became the disciple of Antisthenes,[13] but it is by no means certain that they ever met.[14][15][16] Diogenes did however adopt Antisthenes' teachings and the ascetic way of life, pursuing a life of self-sufficiency (autarkeia), austerity (askēsis), and shamelessness (anaideia).[17] There are many anecdotes about his extreme asceticism (sleeping in a tub),[18] his shameless behaviour (eating raw meat),[19] and his criticism of conventional society ("bad people obey their lusts as servants obey their masters"),[20] and although it is impossible to tell which of these stories are true, they do illustrate the broad character of the man, including an ethical seriousness.[21]

Crates of Thebes[editar | editar código-fonte]

Crates of Thebes (c. 365–c. 285 BC) is the third figure who dominates Cynic history. He is notable because he renounced a large fortune to live a life of Cynic poverty in Athens.[22] He is said to have been a pupil of Diogenes,[23] but again this is uncertain.[24] Crates married Hipparchia of Maroneia after she had fallen in love with him and together they lived like beggars on the streets of Athens,[25] where Crates was treated with respect.[26] Crates' later fame (apart from his unconventional lifestyle) lies in the fact that he became the teacher of Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism.[27] The Cynic strain to be found in early Stoicism (such as Zeno's own radical views on sexual equality spelled out in his Republic) can be ascribed to Crates' influence.[28]

Other Cynics[editar | editar código-fonte]

There were many other Cynics in the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, including Onesicritus (who sailed with Alexander the Great to India), and the moral satirists Bion of Borysthenes and Menippus of Gadara. However, with the rise of Stoicism in the 3rd century BC, Cynicism as a serious philosophical activity underwent a decline,[29] [30] and it is not until the Roman era that Cynicism underwent a revival.

Cynicism in the Roman World[editar | editar código-fonte]

Diogenes of Sinope – depicted by Jean-Léon Gérôme

There is little record of Cynicism in the 2nd or 1st centuries BC; Cicero (c. 50 BC), who was much interested in Greek philosophy, had little to say about Cynicism, except that "it is to be shunned; for it is opposed to modesty, without which there can be neither right nor honor."[31] However, by the 1st century AD, Cynicism reappeared with full force. The rise of Imperial Rome, like the Greek loss of independence under Philip and Alexander three centuries earlier, may have led to a sense of powerlessness and frustration among many people, which allowed a philosophy which emphasized self-sufficiency and inner-happiness to flourish once again.[32] Cynics could be found throughout the empire, standing on street corners, preaching about Virtue.[33] Lucian complained that "every city is filled with such upstarts, particularly with those who enter the names of Diogenes, Antisthenes, and Crates as their patrons and enlist in the Army of the Dog,"[34] and Aelius Aristides observed that "they frequent the doorways, talking more to the doorkeepers than to the masters, making up for their lowly condition by using impudence."[35] The most notable representative of Cynicism in the 1st century AD was Demetrius, whom Seneca praised as "a man of consummate wisdom, though he himself denied it, constant to the principles which he professed, of an eloquence worthy to deal with the mightiest subjects."[36] Cynicism in Rome was both the butt of the satirist and the ideal of the thinker. In the 2nd century AD, Lucian, whilst pouring scorn on the Cynic philosopher Peregrinus Proteus,[37] nevertheless praised his own Cynic teacher, Demonax, in a dialogue.[38]

Cynicism came to be seen as an idealised form of Stoicism, a view which led Epictetus to eulogise the ideal Cynic in a lengthy discourse.[39] According to Epictetus, the ideal Cynic "must know that he is sent as a messenger from Zeus to people concerning good and bad things, to show them that they have wandered."[40] Unfortunately for Epictetus, many Cynics of the era did not live up to the ideal: "consider the present Cynics who are dogs that wait at tables, and in no respect imitate the Cynics of old except perchance in breaking wind."[41]

Unlike Stoicism, which declined as an independent philosophy after the 2nd century AD, Cynicism seems to have thrived into the 4th century.[42] The Emperor Julian (ruled 361–363), like Epictetus, praised the ideal Cynic and complained about the actual practitioners of Cynicism.[43]

The final Cynic noted in classical history is Sallustius of Emesa in the late 5th century.[44] A student of the Neoplatonic philosopher Isidore of Alexandria, he devoted himself to living a life of Cynic asceticism.

Cynicism and Christianity[editar | editar código-fonte]

Jesus as a Jewish Cynic[editar | editar código-fonte]

Some historians have noted the similarities between the life and teachings of Jesus and those of the Cynics. Some scholars have argued that the Q document, a hypothetical common source for the gospels of Matthew and Luke, has strong similarities with the teachings of the Cynics.[45][46] Scholars on the quest for the historical Jesus, such as Burton L. Mack and John Dominic Crossan of the Jesus Seminar, have argued that 1st century AD Galilee was a world in which Hellenistic ideas collided with Jewish thought and traditions. The city of Gadara, only a day's walk from Nazareth, was particularly notable as a centre of Cynic philosophy,[47] and Mack has described Jesus as a "rather normal Cynic-type figure."[48] For Crossan, Jesus was more like a Cynic sage from an Hellenistic Jewish tradition than either a Christ who would die as a substitute for sinners or a Messiah who wanted to establish an independent Jewish state of Israel.[49] Other scholars doubt that Jesus was deeply influenced by the Cynics, and see the Jewish prophetic tradition as of much greater importance.[50]

Cynic influences on early Christianity[editar | editar código-fonte]

Many of the ascetic practices of Cynicism may have been adopted by early Christians, and Christians often employed the same rhetorical methods as the Cynics.[51] Some Cynics were actually martyred for speaking out against the authorities.[52] One Cynic, Peregrinus Proteus, lived for a time as a Christian before converting to Cynicism,[53] whereas in the 4th century, Maximus of Alexandria, although a Christian, was also called a Cynic because of his ascetic lifestyle. Christian writers would often praise Cynic poverty,[54] although they scorned Cynic shamelessness: Augustine stating that they had, "in violation of the modest instincts of men, boastfully proclaimed their unclean and shameless opinion, worthy indeed of dogs."[55] The ascetic orders of Christianity also had direct connection with the Cynics, as can be seen in the wandering mendicant monks of the early church who in outward appearance, and in many of their practices were little different from the Cynics of an earlier age.[56]

Referências

  1. ↑ a b c Robert Bracht Branham; Marie-Odile Goulet-Cazé (2000). The Cynics: The Cynic Movement in Antiquity and Its Legacy. Universidade da California Press. pp. 28 – 46. ISBN 978-0-520-21645-7.
  2. ↑ Jonathan Ree; J.O. Urmson (2005). The Concise Encyclopedia of Western Philosophy and Philosophers. Routledge. p. 91. ISBN 978-1-134-89779-7.
  3. ↑ Luis E. Navia (1996). Classical Cynicism: A Critical Study. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-313-30015-8.
  4. ↑ Dudley 1937, p. 1
  5. ↑ Xenofonte, Symposium, 4.57–64.
  6. ↑ Diógenes Laércio, vi. 2
  7. ↑ Diógenes Laércio, vi. 15–18
  8. ↑ Prince 2005, p. 79
  9. ↑ Navia 1996, p. 40
  10. ↑ Xenofonte, Symposium, 4.34.
  11. ↑ Diógenes Laércio, vi. 20–21
  12. ↑ Diógenes Laércio, vi. 20, 71
  13. ↑ Diógenes Laércio, vi. 6, 18, 21; Aelian, x. 16; Epictetus, Discourses, iii. 22. 63
  14. ↑ Long 1996, p. 45
  15. ↑ Dudley 1937, p. 2
  16. ↑ Prince 2005, p. 77
  17. ↑ Sarton, G., Ancient Science Through the Golden Age of Greece, Dover Publications. (1980).
  18. ↑ Diógenes Laércio, vi. 23; Jerome, Adversus Jovinianum, 2.14
  19. ↑ Diógenes Laércio, vi. 34
  20. ↑ Diógenes Laércio, vi. 66
  21. ↑ Long 1996, p. 33
  22. ↑ Diógenes Laércio, vi. 87–88
  23. ↑ Diógenes Laércio, vi. 85, 87; Epictetus, Discourses, iii. 22. 63
  24. ↑ Long 1996, p. 46
  25. ↑ Although there is no mention in ancient sources of them actually begging. Cf. Doyne Dawson, (1992), Cities of the gods: communist utopias in Greek thought, page 135. Oxford University Press
  26. ↑ Plutarch, Symposiacs, 2.1; Apuleius, Florida, 22; Julian, Orations, 6.201b
  27. ↑ Diógenes Laércio, i. 15, vi. 105, vii. 2, etc
  28. ↑ Schofield 1991
  29. ↑ Dudley 1937, p. 117
  30. ↑ Bracht Branham & Goulet-Cazé 1996, p. 13
  31. ↑ Cicero, De Officiis, i. 41.
  32. ↑ Dudley 1937, p. 124
  33. ↑ Lucian, De Morte Peregrini, 3
  34. ↑ Lucian, Fugitivi, 16.
  35. ↑ Aelius Aristides, iii. 654–694
  36. ↑ Seneca, De Beneficiis, vii.
  37. ↑ Lucian, De Morte Peregrini.
  38. ↑ Lucian, Demonax.
  39. ↑ Epictetus, Discourses, 3. 22.
  40. ↑ Epictetus, Discourses, 3. 22. 23
  41. ↑ Epictetus, Discourses, 3. 22. 80
  42. ↑ Dudley 1937, p. 202
  43. ↑ Julian, Oration 6: To the Uneducated Cynics; Oration 7: To the Cynic Heracleios.
  44. ↑ Damascius, Life of Isidorus: fragments preserved in the Commentary on Plato's Parmenides by Proclus, in the Bibliotheca of Photius, and in The Suda.
  45. ↑ Leif Vaage, (1994), Galilean Upstarts: Jesus' First Followers According to Q. TPI
  46. ↑ F. Gerald Downing, (1992), Cynics and Christian Origins. T. & T. Clark.
  47. ↑ In particular, Menippus (3rd century BC), Meleager (1st century BC), and Oenomaus (2nd century AD), all came from Gadara.
  48. ↑ Quoted in R. Ostling, Who was Jesus?", Time, August 15, 1988, pages 37–42.
  49. ↑ John Dominic Crossan, (1991), The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, ISBN 0-06-061629-6
  50. ↑ Craig A. Evans, Life of Jesus Research: An Annotated Bibliography, page 151. BRILL
  51. ↑ F. Gasco Lacalle, (1986) Cristianos y cinicos. Una tificacion del fenomeno cristiano durante el siglo II, pages 111–119. Memorias de Historia Antigua 7.
  52. ↑ Dio Cassius, Epitome of book 65, 15.5; Herodian, Roman History, 1.9.2–5
  53. ↑ Lucian, De Morte Peregrini, 10–15
  54. ↑ Origen, adv. Cels. 2.41, 6.28, 7.7; Basil of Caesarea, Leg. Lib. Gent. 9.3, 4, 20; Theodoret, Provid. 6; John Chrysostom, Ad. Op. Vit. Monast. 2.4, 5
  55. ↑ Augustine, De Civitate Dei 14.20.
  56. ↑ Dudley 1937, pp. 209–211
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