Estado comunista: diferenças entre revisões
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#REDIRECT [[Estado socialista]] |
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Um '''Estado comunista''' ou '''Estado Socialista''', também conhecido como '''Estado Marxista-Leninista''', é um Estado [[Unipartidarismo|unipartidário]] que é administrado e governado por um [[partido comunista]] guiado pelo [[Marxismo-Leninismo]]. O Marxismo-Leninismo foi a ideologia estatal da [[União Soviética]], do [[Comintern]] após o [[Bolchevismo]] e dos Estados comunistas dentro do [[Comecon]], do [[Bloco de Leste]], do [[Pacto de Varsóvia]] e de vários estados do [[Movimento Não Alinhado]] e do [[Terceiro Mundo]] durante a [[Guerra Fria]].<ref>Bottomore, T. B. (1991). ''A Dictionary of Marxist Thought''. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 54.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences|last=Hanson|first=S. E.|chapter=Marxism/Leninism|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/01174-8|isbn=9780080430768|year=2001|pages=9298–9302}}</ref> O Marxismo-Leninismo continua a ser a ideologia de vários estados comunistas em todo o mundo e a ideologia oficial dos partidos governantes da [[China]], [[Cuba]], [[Laos]] e [[Vietnã|Vietname]].<ref>Cooke, Chris, ed. (1998). ''Dictionary of Historical Terms'' (2nd ed.). pp. 221–222, 305.</ref> |
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Os Estados comunistas são tipicamente administrados através do [[centralismo democrático]] por um único aparelho partidário comunista centralizado. Estes partidos são geralmente marxistas-leninistas ou alguma variação nacional, como o [[Maoismo|maoísmo]] ou o [[titoísmo]], com o objetivo oficial de alcançar o [[socialismo]] e progredir para uma [[sociedade comunista]]. Tem havido vários casos de estados comunistas com processos de participação política em funcionamento envolvendo várias outras organizações não partidárias, tais como a participação [[Democracia direta|democrática direta]], comités de fábrica e [[Sindicato|sindicatos]], com partido comunista a permanecer o centro do poder.<ref>{{cite book|title=Soviet Democracy|last=Sloan|first=Pat|publisher=Left Book Club; Victor Gollancz Ltd|year=1937|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Soviet Communism: A New Civilisation?|last1=Webb|first1=Sidney|last2=Webb|first2=Beatrice|publisher=Longmans|year=1935|location=London}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Before Stalinism: The Rise and Fall of Soviet Democracy |last=Farber |first=Samuel |year=1992 |pages=229–230 |volume=44 |journal=Studies in Soviet Thought |issue=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Kronstadt 1917-1921: The Fate of a Soviet Democracy|last=Getzler|first=Israel|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521894425|orig-year=1982|year=2002|location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey|last=Busky|first=Donald F.|date=20 July 2000|publisher=Praeger|isbn=978-0275968861|page=9|quote=In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism.}}</ref> |
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Como termo, o Estado comunista é utilizado por historiadores ocidentais, cientistas políticos e meios de comunicação social para se referir a estes países e distingui-los de outros Estados socialistas. Contudo, estes estados não se descrevem a si próprios como comunistas nem afirmam ter alcançado o comunismo - referem-se a si próprios como estados socialistas que estão no processo de construção do socialismo.<ref name="The Economics of Socialism after World War Two: 1945-1990">{{cite book|title=The Economics of Socialism after World War Two: 1945-1990|last=Wilczynski|first=J.|date=2008|publisher=Aldine Transaction|isbn=978-0202362281|pages=21|quote=Contrary to Western usage, these countries describe themselves as 'Socialist' (not 'Communist'). The second stage (Marx's 'higher phase'), or 'Communism' is to be marked by an age of plenty, distribution according to needs (not work), the absence of money and the market mechanism, the disappearance of the last vestiges of capitalism and the ultimate 'whithering away' of the State.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation|last=Steele|first=David Ramsay|date=September 1999|publisher=Open Court|isbn=978-0875484495|page=45|quote=Among Western journalists the term 'Communist' came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy|last=Rosser|first=Mariana V. and J Barkley Jr.|date=23 July 2003|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0262182348|pages=14|quote=Ironically, the ideological father of communism, Karl Marx, claimed that communism entailed the withering away of the state. The dictatorship of the proletariat was to be a strictly temporary phenomenon. Well aware of this, the Soviet Communists never claimed to have achieved communism, always labeling their own system socialist rather than communist and viewing their system as in transition to communism.}}</ref><ref name="Williams 1983 289">{{cite book|title=Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society, revised edition|last=Williams|first=Raymond|publisher=Oxford University Press|chapter=Socialism|isbn=978-0-19-520469-8|year=1983|page=[https://archive.org/details/keywordsvocabula00willrich/page/289 289]|quote=The decisive distinction between socialist and communist, as in one sense these terms are now ordinarily used, came with the renaming, in 1918, of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) as the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). From that time on, a distinction of socialist from communist, often with supporting definitions such as social democrat or democratic socialist, became widely current, although it is significant that all communist parties, in line with earlier usage, continued to describe themselves as socialist and dedicated to socialism.|chapter-url-access=registration|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/keywordsvocabula00willrich/page/289}}</ref> Os termos utilizados pelos estados comunistas incluem Estados ''nacionais-democráticos'', Estados ''democrático-populares'', Estados ''socialistas'' e Estados de ''trabalhadores e camponeses''.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WK18-OoR0pIC&pg=PA85|title=Black Earth, Red Star: A History of Soviet Security Policy, 1917-1991|last1=Nation|first1=R. Craig|date=1992|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-0801480072|access-date=19 December 2014|pages=85–6|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801050439/https://books.google.ie/books?id=WK18-OoR0pIC&pg=PA85#v=onepage&q&f=false|archive-date=1 August 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> |
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== Lista de Estados comunistas == |
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=== Estados comunistas atuais === |
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[[File:Communist_States.svg|ligação=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Communist_States.svg|miniaturadaimagem|300x300px|Um mapa dos estados comunistas atuais]] |
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Os países seguintes são Estados unipartidários nos quais as instituições do partido comunista no poder e o Estado se entrelaçaram. São defensores do [[Marxismo-Leninismo]]. Estão aqui indicados com o ano da sua fundação e os seus respetivos partidos no poder.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2128.html?countryName=Korea,%20North&countryCode=kn®ionCode=eas&#kn "North Korea"]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180908054301/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2128.html?countryName=Korea,%20North&countryCode=kn®ionCode=eas&#kn|date=8 September 2018}}.</ref> |
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{| class="wikitable sortable" width="100%" |
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! width="150px" |País |
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! width="150px" |Nome nativo |
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! width="125px" |Desde |
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! width="100px" |Partido governante |
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|- |
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|{{flag|China|name=República Popular da China}}{{refn|[[Hong Kong]] e [[Macau]] são administrados segundo o princípio "[[Um país, dois sistemas]]".|group=nb}} |
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|Em [[chinês simplificado]]: 中华人民共和国 |
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Em [[pinyin]]: ''Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó'' |
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|1 de outubro 1949 |
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|[[Partido Comunista da China]] |
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|- |
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|{{flag|Cuba|name=República de Cuba}} |
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|Em [[Língua castelhana|espanhol]]: ''República de Cuba'' |
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|1 de janeiro de 1959 |
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|[[Partido Comunista de Cuba]] |
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|- |
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|{{no wrap|{{flag|Laos|name=República Democrática Popular do Laos}}}} |
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|Em [[Língua laociana|lao]]: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ |
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{{no wrap|Na romanização de Lao: ''Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao''}} |
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|2 de dezembro de 1975 |
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|[[Partido Popular Revolucionário do Laos]] |
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|- |
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|{{flag|Vietnam|name=República Socialista do Vietname}} |
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|{{no wrap|Em [[Língua vietnamita|Vietnamita]]: ''Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam''}} |
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|{{no wrap|2 de setembro de 1945 ([[Vietname do Norte]])<br>30 de abril de 1975 ([[República do Vietname do Sul|Vietname do Sul]])<br>2 de julho de 1976 ([[Dia da Reunificação|unificado]])}} |
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|[[Partido Comunista do Vietnã|Partido Comunista do Vietname]] |
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|} |
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=== Estados multipartidários com partidos comunistas no governo === |
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Há Estados multipartidários com partidos comunistas a liderar o governo. Tais estados não são considerados estados comunistas porque os próprios países permitem a existência de múltiplos partidos e não atribuem um papel constitucional aos seus partidos comunistas. O [[Nepal]] é atualmente liderado pelo [[Partido Comunista do Nepal]] e foi anteriormente governado pelo [[Partido Comunista do Nepal (Marxista-Leninista Unificado)]] e pelo [[Partido Comunista do Nepal (Maoísta)|Partido Comunista Unificado do Nepal (Maoísta)]] entre 1994 e 1998 e depois novamente entre 2008 e 2018, enquanto os Estados anteriormente governados por um ou mais partidos comunistas incluem [[San Marino|São Marino]] (1945-1957), [[Nicarágua]] (1984-1990), [[Moldávia]] (2001-2009), [[Chipre]] (2008-2013) e [[Guiana]] (1992-2015) |
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=== Antigos Estados comunistas === |
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Os seguintes Estados comunistas eram Estados socialistas comprometidos com o [[comunismo]]. Alguns foram de curta duração e precederam a adoção generalizada do [[Marxismo-Leninismo]] pela maioria dos estados comunistas. |
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* {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Rússia]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1918–1937).svg}} [[:en:Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic|Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (1917–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Turkestan ASSR (1919-1921).svg}} [[:en:Turkestan_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1918–1924) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Volga German ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Volga_German_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1918–1941) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Bashkir ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Bashkir_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1919–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Tatar ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Tatar_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1920–1990) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Kirghiz ASSR (1920-25).svg}} [[:en:Kirghiz_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_(1920–25)|Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic]] (1920–1925) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Mountain ASSR (1921-1924).svg}} [[:en:Mountain_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1921–1924) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Dagestan ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Dagestan_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1921–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Crimean ASSR (1938).svg}} [[:en:Crimean_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1921–1941; 1944–1945) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Yakut ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Yakut_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1922–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Buryat ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Buryat_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1923–1990) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Karelian ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Karelian_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1923–1940; 1956–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of The Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic.svg}} [[:en:Kazakh_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic|Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic]] (1925–1936) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kirghiz ASSR (1929-1937).svg}} [[:en:Kirghiz_Autonomous_Socialist_Soviet_Republic_(1926–36)|Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic]] (1926–1936) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Mordovian ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Mordovian_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Mordovian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1934–1990) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Udmurt ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Udmurt_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1934–1990) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Kalmyk ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Kalmyk_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1935–1943; 1957–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Checheno-Ingush_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1936–1944; 1957–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kabardino-Balkar ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Kabardino-Balkarian_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1936–1944; 1957–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Komi ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Komi_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Komi Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1936–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Mari ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Mari_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1936–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the North Ossetian ASSR.svg}} [[:en:North_Ossetian_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|North Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1936–1993) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Karelo-Finnish SSR.svg}} [[:en:Karelo-Finnish_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1940–1956) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kabardin ASSR (1954-1957).svg}} [[:en:Kabardin_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Kabardin Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1944–1957) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Tuvan ASSR (1978-1992).svg}} [[:en:Tuvan_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Tuvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1961–1992) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Russian SFSR.svg}} [[:en:Gorno-Altai_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Gorno-Altai Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1990–1991) |
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** {{flagicon image|Petropavlovsk-Krondstadt flag.svg}} [[:en:Soviet_Republic_of_Soldiers_and_Fortress-Builders_of_Naissaar|Soviet Republic of Soldiers and Fortress-Builders of Naissaar]] (1917–1918) |
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** {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[:en:Donetsk–Krivoy_Rog_Soviet_Republic|Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic]] (1918) |
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** {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[:en:Crimean_Socialist_Soviet_Republic|Crimean Socialist Soviet Republic]] (1919) |
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** {{flagicon|Far Eastern Republic}} [[:en:Far_Eastern_Republic|Far Eastern Republic]] (1920–1922) |
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** {{flagicon|Tuvan People's Republic}} [[:en:Tuvan_People's_Republic|Tuvan People's Republic]] (1921–1944) |
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** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1980}} [[:en:Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (1922–1991) |
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* {{flagicon|Ukraine}} [[:en:Ukraine|Ukraine]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[:en:Odessa_Soviet_Republic|Odessa Soviet Republic]] (1918) |
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** {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[:en:Donetsk–Krivoy_Rog_Soviet_Republic|Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic]] (1918) |
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** {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[:en:Crimean_Socialist_Soviet_Republic|Crimean Socialist Soviet Republic]] (1919) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Galician SSR.svg}} [[:en:Galician_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Galician Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1920) |
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** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1980}} [[:en:Union_of_Soviet_Socialist_Republics|Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]] (1922–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic.svg}} [[:en:Ukrainian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1919–1991) |
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**** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Moldavian ASSR (1925-1932).svg}} [[:en:Moldavian_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1924–1940) |
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**** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Crimean ASSR (1938).svg}} [[:en:Crimean_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1991–1992) |
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* {{flagicon|Finland}} [[:en:Finland|Finland]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[:en:Finnish_Socialist_Workers'_Republic|Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic]] (1918) |
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** {{flagicon|Finland}} [[:en:Finnish_Democratic_Republic|Finnish Democratic Republic]] (1939–1940) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Karelo-Finnish SSR.svg}} [[:en:Karelo-Finnish_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1940–1956) |
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* {{flagicon|Germany}} [[:en:Germany|Germany]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[:en:Free_Socialist_Republic_of_Germany|Free Socialist Republic of Germany]] (1918–1919) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[:en:Saxony_Soviet|Saxony Soviet]] (1918–1919) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[:en:Bremen_Soviet_Republic|Bremen Soviet Republic]] |
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*** {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[:en:Bavarian_Soviet_Republic|Bavarian Soviet Republic]] (1919) |
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** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Soviet_occupation_zone|Soviet occupation of Germany]] (1945–1949) |
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*** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Soviet_occupation_zone|Soviet occupation of Berlin]] (1945–1949) |
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** {{flagicon|East Germany|1959}} [[:en:German_Democratic_Republic|German Democratic Republic]] (1949–1990) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of East Berlin (1956–1990).svg}} [[:en:East_Berlin|East Berlin]] (1949–1990) |
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* {{flagicon|France}} [[:en:France|France]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Republic of Alsace-Lorraine.svg}} [[:en:Alsace-Lorraine_Soviet_Republic|Alsace-Lorraine Soviet Republic]] (1918) |
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* {{flagicon|Estonia}} [[:en:Estonia|Estonia]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Commune of the Working People of Estonia.svg}} [[:en:Commune_of_the_Working_People_of_Estonia|Commune of the Working People of Estonia]] (1918–1919) |
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** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1940)|First Soviet occupation of the Baltic states]] (1940–1941) |
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** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1944)|Second Soviet occupation of the Baltic states]] (1944–1945) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (1953–1990).svg}} [[:en:Estonian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1944–1991) |
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* {{flagicon|Latvia}} [[:en:Latvia|Latvia]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of Latvian SSR 1919.svg}} [[:en:Latvian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic|Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic]] (1918–1920) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic (1953–1990).svg}} [[:en:Latvian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1944–1991) |
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* {{flagicon|Lithuania}} [[:en:Lithuania|Lithuania]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Lithuanian-Byelorussian SSR.svg}} [[:en:Lithuanian–Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Lithuanian–Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1919) |
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** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1940)|First Soviet occupation of the Baltic states]] (1940–1941) |
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** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Soviet_occupation_of_the_Baltic_states_(1944)|Second Soviet occupation of the Baltic states]] (1944–1945) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (1953–1988).svg}} [[:en:Lithuanian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1944–1991) |
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* {{flagicon|Belarus}} [[:en:Belarus|Belarus]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Lithuanian-Byelorussian SSR.svg}} [[:en:Lithuanian–Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Lithuanian–Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1919) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (1951–1991).svg}} [[:en:Byelorussian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1922–1991) |
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* {{flagicon|Hungary}} [[Hungria]] |
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** {{flagicon|Hungarian Soviet Republic}} [[:en:Hungarian_Soviet_Republic|Hungarian Soviet Republic]] (1919) |
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** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Hungary_in_World_War_II#Soviet_occupation_of_Hungary|Soviet occupation of Hungary]] (1944–1946) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of Hungary (1946-1949, 1956-1957).svg}} [[:en:Second_Hungarian_Republic|Second Hungarian Republic]] (1946–1949) |
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** {{flagicon|Hungary}} [[:en:Hungarian_People's_Republic|Hungarian People's Republic]] (1949–1989) |
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* {{flagicon|Ireland}} [[:en:Ireland|Ireland]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[:en:Limerick_Soviet|Limerick Soviet]] (1919) |
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* {{flagicon|Azerbaijan}} [[:en:Azerbaijan|Azerbaijan]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[:en:Mughan_Soviet_Republic|Mughan Soviet Republic]] (1919) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1956–1991).svg}} [[:en:Azerbaijan_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1920–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Nakhichevan ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Nakhichevan_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1921–1990) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Transcaucasian SFSR (1925-1936).svg}} [[:en:Transcaucasian_Socialist_Federative_Soviet_Republic|Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic]] (1922–1936) |
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* {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[:en:Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovakia]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Red flag.svg}} [[:en:Slovak_Soviet_Republic|Slovak Soviet Republic]] (1919) |
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** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union#Czechoslovakia_(1944)|Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia]] (1944–1948) |
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** {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[:en:Fourth_Czechoslovak_Republic|Fourth Czechoslovak Republic]] (1948–1960) |
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** {{flagicon|Czechoslovakia}} [[:en:Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic|Czechoslovak Socialist Republic]] (1960–1990) |
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* {{flagicon|Tajikistan}} [[:en:Tajikistan|Tajikistan]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic.svg}} [[:en:Bukharan_People's_Soviet_Republic|Bukharan People's Soviet Republic]] (1920–1925) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic.svg}} [[:en:Tajik_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1929–1991) |
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* {{flagicon|Turkmenistan}} [[:en:Turkmenistan|Turkmenistan]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of Khiva 1920-1923.svg}} [[:en:Khorezm_People's_Soviet_Republic|Khorezm People's Soviet Republic]] (1920–1925) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic.svg}} [[:en:Bukharan_People's_Soviet_Republic|Bukharan People's Soviet Republic]] (1920–1925) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (1973–1991).svg}} [[:en:Turkmen_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1925–1991) |
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* {{flagicon|Uzbekistan}} [[:en:Uzbekistan|Uzbekistan]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of Khiva 1920-1923.svg}} [[:en:Khorezm_People's_Soviet_Republic|Khorezm People's Soviet Republic]] (1920–1925) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic.svg}} [[:en:Bukharan_People's_Soviet_Republic|Bukharan People's Soviet Republic]] (1920–1925) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (1952–1991).svg}} [[:en:Uzbek_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1924–1991) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1929).svg}} [[:en:Tajik_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1924–1929) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Karakalpak ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Karakalpak_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Karakalpak Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1932–1991) |
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* {{flagicon|Iran}} [[:en:Iran|Iran]] |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Persian Socialist Soviet Republic.svg}} [[:en:Persian_Socialist_Soviet_Republic|Persian Socialist Soviet Republic]] (1920–1921) |
|||
** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union#Iran_(1941%E2%80%931946)|Soviet occupation of Iran]] (1941–1946) |
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** {{flagicon image|Azerbaijan people's government flag.svg}} [[:en:Azerbaijan_People's_Government|Azerbaijan People's Government]] (1941–1946) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Republic of Mahabad.svg}} [[:en:Republic_of_Mahabad|Republic of Mahabad]] (1946–1947) |
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* {{flagicon|Poland}} [[:en:Poland|Poland]] |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Galician SSR.svg}} [[:en:Galician_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Galician Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1920) |
|||
** {{flagicon|Poland}} [[:en:Provisional_Government_of_National_Unity|Provisional Government of National Unity]] (1945–1947) |
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** {{flagicon|Poland|1980}} [[:en:Polish_People's_Republic|Polish People's Republic]] (1947–1989) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Armenia}} [[:en:Armenia|Armenia]] |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1952–1990).svg}} [[:en:Armenian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1920–1991) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Transcaucasian SFSR (1925-1936).svg}} [[:en:Transcaucasian_Socialist_Federative_Soviet_Republic|Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic]] (1922–1936) |
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* {{flagicon|Georgia}} [[:en:Georgia_(country)|Georgia]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1951–1990).svg}} [[:en:Georgian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1921–1991) |
|||
*** {{flagicon image|Flag of Adjarian ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Adjar_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Adjar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1921–1990) |
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*** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Abkhaz ASSR.svg}} [[:en:Abkhaz_Autonomous_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1931–1996) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Transcaucasian SFSR (1925-1936).svg}} [[:en:Transcaucasian_Socialist_Federative_Soviet_Republic|Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic]] (1922–1936) |
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* {{flagicon|Mongolia}} [[:en:Mongolia|Mongolia]] |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the People's Republic of Mongolia (1921-1924).svg}} [[:en:Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia|People's Republic of Mongolia]] (1921–1924) |
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** {{flagicon|Mongolia|1945}} [[:en:Mongolian_People's_Republic|Mongolian People's Republic]] (1924–1992) |
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* {{flagicon|China}} [[:en:China|China]] |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Chinese Communist Party (Pre-1996).svg}} [[:en:Autumn_Harvest_Uprising|Hunan Soviet]] (1927) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Chinese Communist Party (Pre-1996).svg}} [[:en:Guangzhou_Uprising|Guangzhou Commune]] (1927) |
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** {{flagicon image|中國工農紅軍軍旗.svg}} [[:en:Communist-controlled_China_(1927–1949)|Soviet Zone of China]] (1927–1949) |
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*** {{flag|Chinese Soviet Republic}} (1931–1937) |
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**** {{flagicon image|Chinese soviet flag.svg}} [[:en:Jiangxi–Fujian_Soviet|Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet]] (1931–1934) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of Fujian People's Government.svg}} [[:en:People's_Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China|People's Revolutionary Government of the Republic of China]] (1933–1934) |
|||
** {{flagicon|Second East Turkestan Republic}} [[:en:Second_East_Turkestan_Republic|Second East Turkestan Republic]] (1944–1949) |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Inner-Mongolian Autonomous Government.svg}} [[:en:Inner_Mongolian_People's_Republic|Inner Mongolian People's Republic]] (1945) |
|||
** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Soviet_occupation_of_Manchuria|Soviet occupation of Manchuria]] (1945–1946) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Spain}} [[:en:Spain|Spain]] |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[:en:Asturian_miners'_strike_of_1934|Asturian Socialist Republic]] (1934) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Kazakhstan}} [[:en:Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic.svg}} [[:en:Kazakh_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1936–1991) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Kyrgyzstan}} [[:en:Kyrgyzstan|Kyrgyzstan]] |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kyrgyz Soviet Socialist Republic.svg}} [[:en:Kirghiz_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1936–1991) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Romania}} [[:en:Romania|Romania]] |
|||
** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Soviet_occupation_of_Bessarabia_and_northern_Bukovina|Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina]] (1940) |
|||
** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Soviet_occupation_of_Romania|Soviet occupation of Romania]] (1944–1947) |
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** {{flagicon|Romania|1947}} [[:en:Romanian_People's_Republic|Romanian People's Republic]] (1947–1965) |
|||
** {{flagicon|Romania|1965}} [[:en:Socialist_Republic_of_Romania|Socialist Republic of Romania]] (1965–1989) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Moldova}} [[:en:Moldova|Moldova]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[:en:Odessa_Soviet_Republic|Odessa Soviet Republic]] (1918) |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1952–1990).svg}} [[:en:Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1940–1991) |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Transnistria (state).svg}} [[:en:Pridnestrovian_Moldavian_Soviet_Socialist_Republic|Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic]] (1990–1991) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Greece}} [[:en:Greece|Greece]] |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Greece (1822-1978).svg}} [[:en:Political_Committee_of_National_Liberation|Political Committee of National Liberation]] (1944–1949) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Albania}} [[:en:Albania|Albania]] |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Albania (1944–1946).svg}} [[:en:Democratic_Government_of_Albania|Democratic Government of Albania]] (1944–1946) |
|||
** {{flagicon|Albania|1946}} [[:en:People's_Republic_of_Albania|People's Republic of Albania]] (1946–1976) |
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** {{flagicon|Albania|1946}} [[:en:People's_Socialist_Republic_of_Albania|People's Socialist Republic of Albania]] (1976–1992) |
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* {{flagicon|Bulgaria}} [[:en:Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] |
|||
** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union#Bulgaria_(1944)|Soviet occupation of Bulgaria]] (1944–1946) |
|||
** {{flagicon|Bulgaria|1971}} [[:en:People's_Republic_of_Bulgaria|People's Republic of Bulgaria]] (1946–1990) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Norway}} [[:en:Norway|Norway]] |
|||
** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union#Northern_Norway_(1944%E2%80%931946)_and_Bornholm,_Denmark_(1945%E2%80%931946)|Soviet occupation of Northern Norway]] (1944–1946) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Austria}} [[:en:Austria|Austria]] |
|||
** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Allied-occupied_Austria#Soviet_rule_and_reestablishing_Austrian_government|Soviet occupation of Austria]] (1945–1946) |
|||
*** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Allied-occupied_Austria#Soviet_rule_and_reestablishing_Austrian_government|Soviet occupation of Vienna]] (1945–1946) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Denmark}} [[:en:Denmark|Denmark]] |
|||
** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Bornholm#Soviet_occupation_(1945%E2%80%931946)|Soviet occupation of Bornholm]] (1945–1946) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Japan}} [[:en:Japan|Japan]] |
|||
** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Military_occupations_by_the_Soviet_Union#Kuril_Islands_(1945)|Soviet occupation of the Kuril Islands]] (1945) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Coreia}} [[:en:Korea|Korea]] |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the People's Committee of Korea.svg}} [[:en:People's_Republic_of_Korea|People's Republic of Korea]] (1945–1946) |
|||
** {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[:en:Soviet_Civil_Administration|Soviet Civil Administration]] (1945–1946) |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Provisional People's Committee for North Korea.svg}} [[:en:Provisional_People's_Committee_of_North_Korea|Provisional People's Committee of North Korea]] (1946–1947) |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of the Provisional People's Committee for North Korea.svg}} [[:en:People's_Committee_of_North_Korea|People's Committee of North Korea]] (1947–1948) |
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** {{flagicon|North Korea}} [[:en:North_Korea|Democratic People's Republic of Korea]] (1948–1992/2009){{refn|Although the government's official ideology is now the ''[[Juche]]'' part of [[Kimilsungism–Kimjongilism]] policy of [[Kim Il-sung]] as opposed to orthodox [[Marxism–Leninism]], it is still considered a [[socialist state]]. In 1992, all references to Marxism–Leninism in the [[Constitution of North Korea]] were dropped and replaced with ''Juche''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dae-Kyu|first=Yoon|year=2003|url=http://ir.lawnet.fordham.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1934&context=ilj|title=The Constitution of North Korea: Its Changes and Implications|journal=Fordham International Law Journal|volume=27|issue=4|pages=1289–1305|access-date=10 August 2020}}</ref> In 2009, the constitution was quietly amended so that not only did it remove all Marxist–Leninist references present in the first draft, but it also dropped all reference to [[communism]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Park|first=Seong-Woo|date=23 September 2009|url=https://www.rfa.org/korean/in_focus/first_millitary-09232009120017.html|title=북 개정 헌법 '선군사상' 첫 명기|script-title=ko:Bug gaejeong heonbeob 'seongunsasang' cheos myeong-gi|trans-title=First stipulation of the 'Seongun Thought' of the North Korean Constitution|agency=Radio Free Asia|language=ko|access-date=10 August 2020}}</ref> According to ''North Korea: A Country Study'' by Robert L. Worden, Marxism–Leninism was abandoned immediately after the start of [[de-Stalinisation]] in the Soviet Union and it has been totally replaced by ''Juche'' since at least 1974.<ref>{{cite book|last=Worden|first=Robert L.|year=2008|url=http://cdn.loc.gov/master/frd/frdcstdy/no/northkoreacountr00word/northkoreacountr00word.pdf|title=North Korea: A Country Study|edition=5th|location=Washington, D. C.|publisher=Library of Congress|page=206|isbn=978-0-8444-1188-0}}</ref>|group=nb}} |
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* {{flagicon image|Flag of Yugoslavia (1918–1941).svg}} [[:en:Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of Yugoslavia (1943–1946).svg}} [[:en:Federal_People's_Republic_of_Yugoslavia|Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia]] (1945–1963) |
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** {{flagicon|Yugoslavia|1946}} [[:en:Socialist_Federal_Republic_of_Yugoslavia|Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] (1963–1992) |
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* {{flagicon|Colombia}} [[:en:Colombia|Colombia]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Single_Color_Flag_-_BF0000.svg}} [[:en:Marquetalia_Republic|Marquetalia Republic]] (1948–1958) |
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* {{flagicon|Vietnam}} [[:en:Vietnam|Vietnam]] |
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** {{flagicon|Vietnam}} [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Vietnam|Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] (1954–1975) |
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** {{flagicon image|FNL Flag.svg|25px}} [[:en:Provisional_Revolutionary_Government_of_the_Republic_of_South_Vietnam|Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam]] (1969–1976) |
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* {{flagicon|Yemen}} [[:en:Yemen|Yemen]] |
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** {{flagicon|South Yemen}} [[:en:People's_Democratic_Republic_of_Yemen|People's Democratic Republic of Yemen]] (1967–1990) |
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* {{flagicon|Republic of the Congo}} [[:en:Republic_of_the_Congo|Republic of the Congo]] |
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** {{flagicon|Republic of the Congo|1970}} [[:en:People's_Republic_of_the_Congo|People's Republic of the Congo]] (1969–1992) |
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* {{flagicon|Somalia}} [[:en:Somalia|Somalia]] |
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** {{flagicon|Somalia}} [[:en:Somali_Democratic_Republic|Somali Democratic Republic]] (1969–1991) |
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* {{flagicon|Ethiopia}} [[:en:Ethiopia|Ethiopia]] |
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** {{flagicon|Ethiopia|1975}} [[:en:Provisional_Military_Government_of_Socialist_Ethiopia|Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia]] (1974–1987) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of Ethiopia (1987-1991).svg}}[[:en:People's_Democratic_Republic_of_Ethiopia|People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia]] (1987–1991) |
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* {{flagicon|Mozambique}} [[:en:Mozambique|Mozambique]] |
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** {{flagicon|Mozambique|1975}} [[:en:People's_Republic_of_Mozambique|People's Republic of Mozambique]] (1975–1990) |
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* {{flagicon|Angola}} [[:en:Angola|Angola]] |
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** {{flagicon|Angola}} [[:en:People's_Republic_of_Angola|People's Republic of Angola]] (1975–1992) |
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* {{flagicon|Benin}} [[:en:Benin|Benin]] |
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** {{flagicon|Benin|1975}} [[:en:People's_Republic_of_Benin|People's Republic of Benin]] (1975–1990) |
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* {{flagicon|Cambodia}} [[:en:Cambodia|Cambodia]] |
|||
** {{flagicon image|Flag of Democratic Kampuchea.svg}} [[:en:Democratic_Kampuchea|Democratic Kampuchea]] (1976–1979) |
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** {{flagicon|Cambodia|1979}} [[:en:People's_Republic_of_Kampuchea|People's Republic of Kampuchea]] (1979–1989) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of the State of Cambodia.svg}} [[:en:People's_Republic_of_Kampuchea#Transition_and_State_of_Cambodia_(1989%E2%80%931992)|State of Cambodia]] (1989–1992) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of Democratic Kampuchea.svg}} [[:en:Coalition_Government_of_Democratic_Kampuchea|Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea]] (1982–1992) |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of Democratic Kampuchea.svg}} [[:en:Provisional_Government_of_National_Union_and_National_Salvation_of_Cambodia|Provisional Government of National Union and National Salvation of Cambodia]] (1994–1998) |
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* {{flagicon|Afghanistan}} [[Afeganistão]] |
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** {{flagicon image|Flag of Afghanistan (1980–1987).svg}} [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan|Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]] (1978–1987) |
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** {{flagicon|Afghanistan|1980}} [[:en:Democratic_Republic_of_Afghanistan|Republic of Afghanistan]] (1987–1992) |
|||
* {{flagicon|Grenada}} [[Granada (país)|Granada]] |
|||
** {{flagicon|Grenada}} [[:en:People's_Revolutionary_Government_of_Grenada|People's Revolutionary Government of Grenada]] (1979–1983) |
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* {{flagicon|Burkina Faso}} [[Burkina Faso]] |
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** {{flagicon|Burkina Faso}} [[:en:Burkina_Faso#Burkina_Faso_(since_1984)|People's Republic of Burkina Faso]] (1984–1987) |
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== Bibliografia == |
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=== General === |
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As referências para quando os indivíduos foram eleitos para o cargo de líder do [[Partido Comunista da China|PCCh]], o nome dos cargos e quando se estabeleceram e foram abolidos encontram-se abaixo.{{refbegin}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Constitution of the Communist Party of China|author=19th National Congress|publisher=[[Communist Party of China]]|year=2017|author-link=19th National Congress of the Communist Party of China}} |
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* {{cite book|title=China: Development and Governance|last=Gungwu|first=Wang|publisher=[[World Scientific|World Scientific Publishing Company]]|isbn=978-9814425841|year=2012|pages=12–13}} |
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{{refend}} |
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=== Artigos e entradas em periódicos === |
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{{refbegin}} |
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* {{cite journal |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/6403BF859E16F8CC7EAC25A16AC76345/S2194607816000223a.pdf/constitutionalizing_single_party_leadership_in_vietnam_dilemmas_of_reform.pdf |title=Constitutionalizing Single Party Leadership in Vietnam: Dilemmas of Reform |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |last=Bui |first=T. |year=2016 |pages=219–234 |doi=10.1017/asjcl.2016.22 |volume=11 |journal=[[Asian Journal of Comparative Law]] |issue=2}} |
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* {{cite journal |title=The Chinese Communist State System Under the Constitution of 1954 |date=August 1956 |publisher=[[The University of Chicago Press]] on behalf of the [[Southern Political Science Association]] |last=Chang |first=Yu-nan |pages=520–546 |doi=10.2307/2127261 |jstor=2127261 |volume=18 |issue=3 |journal=[[The Journal of Politics]] |s2cid=154446161}} |
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* {{cite journal |title=Law Does not Wither Away in the Soviet Union |date=July 1950 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons|Wiley]] on behalf of The Editors and Board of Trustees of the Russian Review |last=Guins |first=George |pages=187–204 |doi=10.2307/125763 |jstor=125763 |volume=9 |issue=3 |journal=[[The Russian Review]]}} |
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* {{cite journal |url=https://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=443120004027031095011025004120066010019034072064048062031086094088085115011006026065035021040118024059039026110121086074016015039034047048077007107072079116124000103051035010106115127065024073083116005082119004002073103027065071029115124015091086126101&EXT=pdf |title=An Assessment of Socialist Constitutional Supervision Models and Prospects for a Constitutional Supervision Committee in China: The Constitution as Commander? |date=August 1956 |publisher=[[University of California]] |last=Hand |first=Keith |issue=150 |journal=[[Legal Studies Research Paper Series]]}} |
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* {{cite journal |url=https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.no/&httpsredir=1&article=4046&context=clr |title=Soviet Model for Marxian Socialist Constitutions |date=August 1975 |publisher=[[Cornell University]] |last=Hazard |first=John |pages=109–118 |volume=60 |issue=6 |journal=[[Cornell Law Review]]}} |
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* {{cite journal |title=The Theory of the Soviet State Today |date=July–September 1986 |publisher=[[Indian Political Science Association]] |last=Imam |first=Zafar |pages=382–398 |jstor=41855253 |volume=47 |issue=3 |journal=[[The Indian Journal of Political Science]]}} |
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* {{cite journal |title=Chinese Politics and the New Theory of 'Rule of Law' |date=March 1991 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] on behalf of the [[School of Oriental and African Studies]] |last=Keith |first=Richard |pages=109–118 |doi=10.1017/S0305741000030320 |jstor=654479 |volume=125 |issue=125 |journal=[[The China Quarterly]]}} |
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* {{cite journal |url=https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/legacy/files/Military%20Reform%20China%20-%20web2.pdf |title=2015 Military Reform in the People's Republic of China |date=October 2016 |publisher=[[Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs]] |last=Kokoshin |first=Andrey |journal=[[Belfer Center Paper]]}} |
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* {{cite journal |title=Civil-Military Relations in the Warsaw Pact: The East European Component |date=October 2016 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] on behalf of the [[Royal Institute of International Affairs]] |last=Kramer |first=Mark N. |pages=45–66 |doi=10.2307/2619779 |jstor=2619779 |volume=61 |issue=1 |journal=[[International Affairs]]}} |
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* {{cite journal |url=https://www.hoover.org/sites/default/files/research/docs/clm55-am-final.pdf |title=The 19th Central Committee Politburo |date=January 2018 |publisher=[[Hoover Institute]] |last=Miller |first=Alice |issue=55 |journal=[[China Leadership Monitor]]}} |
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* {{cite journal |url=https://www.hoover.org/sites/default/files/research/docs/clm55-jm-final.pdf |title=The Cult of Xi and the Rise of the CMC Chairman Responsibility System |date=January 2018 |publisher=[[Hoover Institute]] |last=Mulvenon |first=James |issue=55 |journal=[[China Leadership Monitor]]}} |
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* {{cite thesis|last=Poelzer|first=Greg|title=An Analysis of Grenada as a Socialist-Oriented State|year=1989|publisher=[[Carleton University]]|url=https://curve.carleton.ca/c50ea832-3c4f-4d02-a6f6-c604a8d04051}} |
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* {{cite news |last=Skilling |first=H. Gordon |title=People's Democracy and the Socialist Revolution: A Case Study in Communist Scholarship. Part I |date=January 1961 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |pages=241–262 |journal=[[Soviet Studies]] |volume=12 |issue=3}} |
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* {{cite thesis|last=Snyder|first=Stanley|title=Soviet Troop Control and the Power Distribution|year=1987|publisher=[[Naval Postgraduate School]]|hdl=10945/22490}} |
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* {{cite report |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000499888.pdf |title=Political Control of the Soviet Armed Forces |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |author=National Foreign Assessment Center |year=1980 |ref=CITEREFStaff_writer1980}} |
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* {{cite journal |title=The Role of the Chinese Communist Party |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] in association with the [[American Academy of Political and Social Science]] |last=Steiner |first=Arthur |year=1951 |pages=56–66 |jstor=1030252 |volume=277 |journal=[[The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science|The Annals]]}} |
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* {{cite journal |title=The Soviet, Chinese and Albanian Constitutions: Ideological Divergence and Institutionalized Confrontation? |date=February 1980 |publisher=[[Springer Publishing]] |last=Tang |first=Peter S. H. |pages=39–58 |doi=10.1007/BF00832025 |jstor=20098938.pdf |volume=21 |issue=1 |journal=[[Studies in Soviet Thought]] |s2cid=144486393}} |
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* {{cite book|title=The Political Resurgence of the Military in Southeast Asia: Conflict and Leadership|last=Thayer|first=Carlyle|publisher=[[Routledge]]|chapter=Military Politics in Contemporary Vietnam|isbn=9780415460354|editor-first=Marcus|editor-last=Mietzner|year=2011|chapter-url=https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/133459/Thayer%20Military%20Politics%20in%20Vietnam.pdf}} |
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* {{cite journal |url=http://spg.snnu.edu.cn/kindeditor-4.1.10/attached/file/20170517/20170517102021182118.pdf |title=Socialist Law and the Civil Law Tradition |date=Autumn 1989 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |last=Quigley |first=John |pages=781–808 |doi=10.2307/840224 |jstor=840224 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180517152608/http://spg.snnu.edu.cn/kindeditor-4.1.10/attached/file/20170517/20170517102021182118.pdf |archive-date=17 May 2018 |volume=37 |issue=4 |journal=[[The American Journal of Comparative Law]] |access-date=26 December 2019 |url-status=dead}} |
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{{refend}} |
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=== Livros === |
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{{refbegin}} |
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* {{cite book|title=The Chinese Army Today: Tradition and Transformation for the 21st Century|last=Blasko|first=Dennis|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781135988777|year=2006}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Governing after Communism: Institutions and Policymaking|last=Dimitrov|first=Vessellin|publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]|chapter=Bulgaria: A Core Against the Odds|isbn=9780742540095|editor-last1=Dimitrov|editor-first1=Vessellin|editor-last2=Goetz|editor-first2=H. Klaus|editor-last3=Wollmann|editor-first3=Hellmut|year=2006|edition=2nd|pages=159–203}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Socialist Planning|last=Ellman|first=Michael|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=9781107427327|year=2014|edition=3rd}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Soviet Marxism–Leninism: The Decline of an Ideology|last=Evans|first=Daniel|publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]]|isbn=9780275947637|year=1993}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Soviet Law|last=Feldbrugge|first=F. J. M.|publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]|chapter=Council of Ministers|isbn=1349060860|editor-last1=Feldbrugge|editor-first1=F. J. M.|editor-last2=Van den Berg|editor-first2=G. P.|editor-last3=Simons|editor-first3=William B.|year=1985|edition=2nd|pages=202–204}} |
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* {{cite book|title=The Political Systems of the Socialist States|last=Furtak|first=Robert K.|publisher=St. Martin's Press|isbn=9780312625276|year=1987|location=New York City}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Communist Political Systems|last1=Gardner|first1=John|last2=Schöpflin|first2=George|last3=White|first3=Stephen|publisher=[[Macmillan Education]]|isbn=0-333-44108-7|year=1987|edition=2nd}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Marxist Governments|last=Harding|first=Neil|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|volume=1|chapter=What Does It Mean to Call a Regime Marxist?|isbn=978-0-333-25704-3|editor-last=Szajkowski|editor-first=Bogdan|year=1981|pages=22–33}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Soviet Law|last=Hazard|first=John|publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]|chapter=Constitutional Law|isbn=1349060860|editor-last1=Feldbrugge|editor-first1=F. J. M.|editor-last2=Van den Berg|editor-first2=G. P.|editor-last3=Simons|editor-first3=William B.|year=1985|edition=2nd|pages=162–163}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Building the Rule of Law in China|last=Li|first=Lin|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|isbn=9780128119303|year=2017}} |
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* {{cite book|title=The Party Statutes of the Communist World|last=Loeber|first=Dietrich Andre|publisher=[[Martinus Nijhoff Publishers]]|chapter=On the Status of the CPSU within the Soviet Legal System|isbn=9789024729753|editor-last1=Simons|editor-first=William|editor-last2=White|editor-first2=Stephen|year=1984|pages=1–22}} |
|||
* {{cite book|title=Communist Legislatures in Comparative Perspective|last=Nelson|first=Daniel|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|volume=1|chapter=Communist Legislatures and Communist Politics|isbn=1349060860|editor-last1=Nelson|editor-first1=Daniel|editor-last2=White|editor-first2=Stephen|year=1982|pages=1–13}} |
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* {{cite book|title=Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy|last1=Rosser|first1=Barkley|last2=Rosser|first2=Marianne|publisher=[[MIT Press]]|isbn=978-0262182348|year=2003}} |
|||
* {{cite book|title=Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe|last=Staar|first=Richard|publisher=[[Hoover Press]]|isbn=9780817976934|year=1988|edition=4th|author-link=Richard Felix Staar}} |
|||
* {{cite book|title=From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation|last=Steele|first=David Ramsay|date=September 1999|publisher=Open Court|isbn=978-0875484495}} |
|||
* {{cite book|title=Constitution of the Communist-Party States|publisher=[[Hoover Institution|Hoover Institution Publications]]|isbn=978-0817917012|editor-last=Triska|editor-first=Jan|year=1968}} |
|||
* {{cite book|title=The Political Institutions of Modern China|last=Tung|first=W. L.|publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]]|isbn=9789401034432|year=2012|edition=2nd}} |
|||
* {{cite book|title=The Economics of Socialism after World War Two: 1945–1990|last=Wilczynski|first=J.|publisher=Aldine Transaction|isbn=9780202362281|year=2008}} |
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{{refend}} |
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Revisão das 01h34min de 27 de fevereiro de 2021
 | Este artigo ou se(c)ção está a ser traduzido. (Data=fevereiro de 2021) |
Um Estado comunista ou Estado Socialista, também conhecido como Estado Marxista-Leninista, é um Estado unipartidário que é administrado e governado por um partido comunista guiado pelo Marxismo-Leninismo. O Marxismo-Leninismo foi a ideologia estatal da União Soviética, do Comintern após o Bolchevismo e dos Estados comunistas dentro do Comecon, do Bloco de Leste, do Pacto de Varsóvia e de vários estados do Movimento Não Alinhado e do Terceiro Mundo durante a Guerra Fria.[1][2] O Marxismo-Leninismo continua a ser a ideologia de vários estados comunistas em todo o mundo e a ideologia oficial dos partidos governantes da China, Cuba, Laos e Vietname.[3]
Os Estados comunistas são tipicamente administrados através do centralismo democrático por um único aparelho partidário comunista centralizado. Estes partidos são geralmente marxistas-leninistas ou alguma variação nacional, como o maoísmo ou o titoísmo, com o objetivo oficial de alcançar o socialismo e progredir para uma sociedade comunista. Tem havido vários casos de estados comunistas com processos de participação política em funcionamento envolvendo várias outras organizações não partidárias, tais como a participação democrática direta, comités de fábrica e sindicatos, com partido comunista a permanecer o centro do poder.[4][5][6][7][8]
Como termo, o Estado comunista é utilizado por historiadores ocidentais, cientistas políticos e meios de comunicação social para se referir a estes países e distingui-los de outros Estados socialistas. Contudo, estes estados não se descrevem a si próprios como comunistas nem afirmam ter alcançado o comunismo - referem-se a si próprios como estados socialistas que estão no processo de construção do socialismo.[9][10][11][12] Os termos utilizados pelos estados comunistas incluem Estados nacionais-democráticos, Estados democrático-populares, Estados socialistas e Estados de trabalhadores e camponeses.[13]
Lista de Estados comunistas
Estados comunistas atuais
Os países seguintes são Estados unipartidários nos quais as instituições do partido comunista no poder e o Estado se entrelaçaram. São defensores do Marxismo-Leninismo. Estão aqui indicados com o ano da sua fundação e os seus respetivos partidos no poder.[14]
| País | Nome nativo | Desde | Partido governante |
|---|---|---|---|
 República Popular da China[nb 1]
|
Em chinês simplificado: 中华人民共和国
Em pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó |
1 de outubro 1949 | Partido Comunista da China |
 República de Cuba
|
Em espanhol: República de Cuba | 1 de janeiro de 1959 | Partido Comunista de Cuba |
 República Democrática Popular do Laos
|
Em lao: ສາທາລະນະລັດ ປະຊາທິປະໄຕ ປະຊາຊົນລາວ
Na romanização de Lao: Sathalanalat Paxathipatai Paxaxon Lao |
2 de dezembro de 1975 | Partido Popular Revolucionário do Laos |
 República Socialista do Vietname
|
Em Vietnamita: Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam | 2 de setembro de 1945 (Vietname do Norte) 30 de abril de 1975 (Vietname do Sul) 2 de julho de 1976 (unificado) |
Partido Comunista do Vietname |
Estados multipartidários com partidos comunistas no governo
Há Estados multipartidários com partidos comunistas a liderar o governo. Tais estados não são considerados estados comunistas porque os próprios países permitem a existência de múltiplos partidos e não atribuem um papel constitucional aos seus partidos comunistas. O Nepal é atualmente liderado pelo Partido Comunista do Nepal e foi anteriormente governado pelo Partido Comunista do Nepal (Marxista-Leninista Unificado) e pelo Partido Comunista Unificado do Nepal (Maoísta) entre 1994 e 1998 e depois novamente entre 2008 e 2018, enquanto os Estados anteriormente governados por um ou mais partidos comunistas incluem São Marino (1945-1957), Nicarágua (1984-1990), Moldávia (2001-2009), Chipre (2008-2013) e Guiana (1992-2015)
Antigos Estados comunistas
Os seguintes Estados comunistas eram Estados socialistas comprometidos com o comunismo. Alguns foram de curta duração e precederam a adoção generalizada do Marxismo-Leninismo pela maioria dos estados comunistas.
Rússia
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (1917–1991)
Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–1924)
Volga German Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1918–1941)
Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1991)
Tatar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1990)
Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–1925)- Ficheiro:Flag of Mountain ASSR (1921-1924).svg Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1924)
Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1991)
Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1941; 1944–1945)
Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1922–1991)
Buryat Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1923–1990)
Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1923–1940; 1956–1991)- Ficheiro:Flag of The Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic.svg Kazakh Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1925–1936)
Kirghiz Autonomous Socialist Soviet Republic (1926–1936)
Mordovian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1934–1990)
Udmurt Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1934–1990)
Kalmyk Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1935–1943; 1957–1991)
Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1944; 1957–1991)
Kabardino-Balkarian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1944; 1957–1991)
Komi Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)
Mari Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)
North Ossetian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1993)
Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1956)
Kabardin Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1944–1957)
Tuvan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1961–1992)
Gorno-Altai Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1990–1991)
Soviet Republic of Soldiers and Fortress-Builders of Naissaar (1917–1918)
Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic (1918)
Crimean Socialist Soviet Republic (1919)- Predefinição:Country data Far Eastern Republic Far Eastern Republic (1920–1922)
- Predefinição:Country data Tuvan People's Republic Tuvan People's Republic (1921–1944)
União Soviética Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)
Ukraine
- Odessa Soviet Republic (1918)
- Donetsk–Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic (1918)
- Crimean Socialist Soviet Republic (1919)
Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (1920)- União Soviética Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1922–1991)
Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (1919–1991)
Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1924–1940)- Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1991–1992)
Finland
- Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic (1918)
- Finnish Democratic Republic (1939–1940)
- Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1956)
Germany
- Free Socialist Republic of Germany (1918–1919)
- Saxony Soviet (1918–1919)
- Bremen Soviet Republic
- Bavarian Soviet Republic (1919)
- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Germany (1945–1949)
- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Berlin (1945–1949)
German Democratic Republic (1949–1990)
East Berlin (1949–1990)
France
Estonia
Commune of the Working People of Estonia (1918–1919)- União Soviética First Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940–1941)
- União Soviética Second Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1944–1945)
Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic (1944–1991)
Latvia
Latvian Socialist Soviet Republic (1918–1920)
Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic (1944–1991)
Lithuania
Belarus
Hungria
- Predefinição:Country data Hungarian Soviet Republic Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919)
- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Hungary (1944–1946)
Second Hungarian Republic (1946–1949)- Hungarian People's Republic (1949–1989)
Ireland
- Limerick Soviet (1919)
Azerbaijan
- Mughan Soviet Republic (1919)
Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1991)
Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1990)
Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (1922–1936)
Czechoslovakia
- Slovak Soviet Republic (1919)
- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia (1944–1948)
- Fourth Czechoslovak Republic (1948–1960)
- Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (1960–1990)
Tajikistan
Bukharan People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)
Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (1929–1991)
Turkmenistan
Khorezm People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)- Bukharan People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)
Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic (1925–1991)
Uzbekistan
- Khorezm People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)
- Bukharan People's Soviet Republic (1920–1925)
Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic (1924–1991)
Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1924–1929)
Karakalpak Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1932–1991)
Iran
Persian Socialist Soviet Republic (1920–1921)- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Iran (1941–1946)
Azerbaijan People's Government (1941–1946)
Republic of Mahabad (1946–1947)
Poland
- Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (1920)
- Provisional Government of National Unity (1945–1947)
Polish People's Republic (1947–1989)
Armenia
Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1991)- Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (1922–1936)
Georgia
Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1991)
Adjar Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1921–1990)
Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (1931–1996)
- Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (1922–1936)
Mongolia
People's Republic of Mongolia (1921–1924)
Mongolian People's Republic (1924–1992)
China
Hunan Soviet (1927)- Guangzhou Commune (1927)
Soviet Zone of China (1927–1949)
- Predefinição:Country data Chinese Soviet Republic (1931–1937)
Jiangxi–Fujian Soviet (1931–1934)
- Predefinição:Country data Chinese Soviet Republic (1931–1937)
People's Revolutionary Government of the Republic of China (1933–1934)- Predefinição:Country data Second East Turkestan Republic Second East Turkestan Republic (1944–1949)
Inner Mongolian People's Republic (1945)- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Manchuria (1945–1946)
Spain
- Asturian Socialist Republic (1934)
Kazakhstan
Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)
Kyrgyzstan
Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic (1936–1991)
Romania
- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and northern Bukovina (1940)
- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Romania (1944–1947)
Romanian People's Republic (1947–1965)
Socialist Republic of Romania (1965–1989)
Moldova
- Odessa Soviet Republic (1918)
Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1940–1991)
Pridnestrovian Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (1990–1991)
Greece
Political Committee of National Liberation (1944–1949)
Albania
Democratic Government of Albania (1944–1946)
People's Republic of Albania (1946–1976)- People's Socialist Republic of Albania (1976–1992)
Bulgaria
- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Bulgaria (1944–1946)
People's Republic of Bulgaria (1946–1990)
Norway
- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Northern Norway (1944–1946)
Austria
- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Austria (1945–1946)
- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Vienna (1945–1946)
Denmark
- União Soviética Soviet occupation of Bornholm (1945–1946)
Japan
Korea
People's Republic of Korea (1945–1946)- União Soviética Soviet Civil Administration (1945–1946)
Provisional People's Committee of North Korea (1946–1947)- People's Committee of North Korea (1947–1948)
Democratic People's Republic of Korea (1948–1992/2009)[nb 2]
Yugoslavia
Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (1945–1963)
Iugoslávia Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1963–1992)
Colombia
Marquetalia Republic (1948–1958)
Vietnam
- Democratic Republic of Vietnam (1954–1975)
Provisional Revolutionary Government of the Republic of South Vietnam (1969–1976)
Yemen
Republic of the Congo
People's Republic of the Congo (1969–1992)
Somalia
- Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991)
Ethiopia
Provisional Military Government of Socialist Ethiopia (1974–1987)
People's Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (1987–1991)
Mozambique
People's Republic of Mozambique (1975–1990)
Angola
- People's Republic of Angola (1975–1992)
- Predefinição:Country data Benin Benin
Cambodia
Democratic Kampuchea (1976–1979)
People's Republic of Kampuchea (1979–1989)
State of Cambodia (1989–1992)- Coalition Government of Democratic Kampuchea (1982–1992)
- Provisional Government of National Union and National Salvation of Cambodia (1994–1998)
Afeganistão
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (1978–1987)- Republic of Afghanistan (1987–1992)
Granada
- People's Revolutionary Government of Grenada (1979–1983)
Burkina Faso
- People's Republic of Burkina Faso (1984–1987)
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Bibliografia
General
As referências para quando os indivíduos foram eleitos para o cargo de líder do PCCh, o nome dos cargos e quando se estabeleceram e foram abolidos encontram-se abaixo.
- 19th National Congress (2017). Constitution of the Communist Party of China. [S.l.]: Communist Party of China
- Gungwu, Wang (2012). China: Development and Governance. [S.l.]: World Scientific Publishing Company. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-9814425841
Artigos e entradas em periódicos
- Bui, T. (2016). «Constitutionalizing Single Party Leadership in Vietnam: Dilemmas of Reform» (PDF). Cambridge University Press. Asian Journal of Comparative Law. 11 (2): 219–234. doi:10.1017/asjcl.2016.22
- Chang, Yu-nan (August 1956). «The Chinese Communist State System Under the Constitution of 1954». The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Southern Political Science Association. The Journal of Politics. 18 (3): 520–546. JSTOR 2127261. doi:10.2307/2127261 Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Guins, George (July 1950). «Law Does not Wither Away in the Soviet Union». Wiley on behalf of The Editors and Board of Trustees of the Russian Review. The Russian Review. 9 (3): 187–204. JSTOR 125763. doi:10.2307/125763 Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Hand, Keith (August 1956). «An Assessment of Socialist Constitutional Supervision Models and Prospects for a Constitutional Supervision Committee in China: The Constitution as Commander?». University of California. Legal Studies Research Paper Series (150) Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Hazard, John (August 1975). «Soviet Model for Marxian Socialist Constitutions». Cornell University. Cornell Law Review. 60 (6): 109–118 Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Imam, Zafar (July–September 1986). «The Theory of the Soviet State Today». Indian Political Science Association. The Indian Journal of Political Science. 47 (3): 382–398. JSTOR 41855253 Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Keith, Richard (March 1991). «Chinese Politics and the New Theory of 'Rule of Law'». Cambridge University Press on behalf of the School of Oriental and African Studies. The China Quarterly. 125 (125): 109–118. JSTOR 654479. doi:10.1017/S0305741000030320 Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Kokoshin, Andrey (October 2016). «2015 Military Reform in the People's Republic of China» (PDF). Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs. Belfer Center Paper Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Kramer, Mark N. (October 2016). «Civil-Military Relations in the Warsaw Pact: The East European Component». Oxford University Press on behalf of the Royal Institute of International Affairs. International Affairs. 61 (1): 45–66. JSTOR 2619779. doi:10.2307/2619779 Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Miller, Alice (January 2018). «The 19th Central Committee Politburo» (PDF). Hoover Institute. China Leadership Monitor (55) Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Mulvenon, James (January 2018). «The Cult of Xi and the Rise of the CMC Chairman Responsibility System» (PDF). Hoover Institute. China Leadership Monitor (55) Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Poelzer, Greg (1989). An Analysis of Grenada as a Socialist-Oriented State (Tese). Carleton University
- Skilling, H. Gordon (January 1961). «People's Democracy and the Socialist Revolution: A Case Study in Communist Scholarship. Part I». Soviet Studies. 12 (3). Taylor & Francis. pp. 241–262 Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Snyder, Stanley (1987). Soviet Troop Control and the Power Distribution (Tese). Naval Postgraduate School. hdl:10945/22490
- National Foreign Assessment Center (1980). Political Control of the Soviet Armed Forces (PDF) (Relatório). Central Intelligence Agency
- Steiner, Arthur (1951). «The Role of the Chinese Communist Party». SAGE Publications in association with the American Academy of Political and Social Science. The Annals. 277: 56–66. JSTOR 1030252
- Tang, Peter S. H. (February 1980). «The Soviet, Chinese and Albanian Constitutions: Ideological Divergence and Institutionalized Confrontation?». Springer Publishing. Studies in Soviet Thought. 21 (1): 39–58. JSTOR 20098938.pdf. doi:10.1007/BF00832025 Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Thayer, Carlyle (2011). «Military Politics in Contemporary Vietnam» (PDF). In: Mietzner, Marcus. The Political Resurgence of the Military in Southeast Asia: Conflict and Leadership. [S.l.]: Routledge. ISBN 9780415460354
- Quigley, John (Autumn 1989). «Socialist Law and the Civil Law Tradition» (PDF). Oxford University Press. The American Journal of Comparative Law. 37 (4): 781–808. JSTOR 840224. doi:10.2307/840224. Consultado em 26 December 2019. Cópia arquivada (PDF) em 17 May 2018 Verifique data em:
|acessodata=, |arquivodata=, |data=(ajuda)
Livros
- Blasko, Dennis (2006). The Chinese Army Today: Tradition and Transformation for the 21st Century. [S.l.]: Routledge. ISBN 9781135988777
- Dimitrov, Vessellin (2006). «Bulgaria: A Core Against the Odds». In: Dimitrov, Vessellin; Goetz, H. Klaus; Wollmann, Hellmut. Governing after Communism: Institutions and Policymaking 2nd ed. [S.l.]: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 159–203. ISBN 9780742540095
- Ellman, Michael (2014). Socialist Planning 3rd ed. [S.l.]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107427327
- Evans, Daniel (1993). Soviet Marxism–Leninism: The Decline of an Ideology. [S.l.]: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780275947637
- Feldbrugge, F. J. M. (1985). «Council of Ministers». In: Feldbrugge, F. J. M.; Van den Berg, G. P.; Simons, William B. Encyclopedia of Soviet Law 2nd ed. [S.l.]: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 202–204. ISBN 1349060860
- Furtak, Robert K. (1987). The Political Systems of the Socialist States. New York City: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9780312625276
- Gardner, John; Schöpflin, George; White, Stephen (1987). Communist Political Systems 2nd ed. [S.l.]: Macmillan Education. ISBN 0-333-44108-7
- Harding, Neil (1981). «What Does It Mean to Call a Regime Marxist?». In: Szajkowski, Bogdan. Marxist Governments. 1. [S.l.]: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 22–33. ISBN 978-0-333-25704-3
- Hazard, John (1985). «Constitutional Law». In: Feldbrugge, F. J. M.; Van den Berg, G. P.; Simons, William B. Encyclopedia of Soviet Law 2nd ed. [S.l.]: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 162–163. ISBN 1349060860
- Li, Lin (2017). Building the Rule of Law in China. [S.l.]: Elsevier. ISBN 9780128119303
- Loeber, Dietrich Andre (1984). «On the Status of the CPSU within the Soviet Legal System». In: Simons, William; White, Stephen. The Party Statutes of the Communist World. [S.l.]: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. pp. 1–22. ISBN 9789024729753
- Nelson, Daniel (1982). «Communist Legislatures and Communist Politics». In: Nelson, Daniel; White, Stephen. Communist Legislatures in Comparative Perspective. 1. [S.l.]: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 1–13. ISBN 1349060860
- Rosser, Barkley; Rosser, Marianne (2003). Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy. [S.l.]: MIT Press. ISBN 978-0262182348
- Staar, Richard (1988). Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe 4th ed. [S.l.]: Hoover Press. ISBN 9780817976934
- Steele, David Ramsay (September 1999). From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. [S.l.]: Open Court. ISBN 978-0875484495 Verifique data em:
|data=(ajuda) - Triska, Jan, ed. (1968). Constitution of the Communist-Party States. [S.l.]: Hoover Institution Publications. ISBN 978-0817917012
- Tung, W. L. (2012). The Political Institutions of Modern China 2nd ed. [S.l.]: Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9789401034432
- Wilczynski, J. (2008). The Economics of Socialism after World War Two: 1945–1990. [S.l.]: Aldine Transaction. ISBN 9780202362281
- ↑ Bottomore, T. B. (1991). A Dictionary of Marxist Thought. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 54.
- ↑ Hanson, S. E. (2001). «Marxism/Leninism». International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences. [S.l.: s.n.] pp. 9298–9302. ISBN 9780080430768. doi:10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/01174-8
- ↑ Cooke, Chris, ed. (1998). Dictionary of Historical Terms (2nd ed.). pp. 221–222, 305.
- ↑ Sloan, Pat (1937). Soviet Democracy. London: Left Book Club; Victor Gollancz Ltd
- ↑ Webb, Sidney; Webb, Beatrice (1935). Soviet Communism: A New Civilisation?. London: Longmans
- ↑ Farber, Samuel (1992). «Before Stalinism: The Rise and Fall of Soviet Democracy». Studies in Soviet Thought. 44 (3): 229–230
- ↑ Getzler, Israel (2002) [1982]. Kronstadt 1917-1921: The Fate of a Soviet Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521894425
- ↑ Busky, Donald F. (20 July 2000). Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey. [S.l.]: Praeger. p. 9. ISBN 978-0275968861.
In a modern sense of the word, communism refers to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism.
Verifique data em:|data=(ajuda) - ↑ Wilczynski, J. (2008). The Economics of Socialism after World War Two: 1945-1990. [S.l.]: Aldine Transaction. 21 páginas. ISBN 978-0202362281.
Contrary to Western usage, these countries describe themselves as 'Socialist' (not 'Communist'). The second stage (Marx's 'higher phase'), or 'Communism' is to be marked by an age of plenty, distribution according to needs (not work), the absence of money and the market mechanism, the disappearance of the last vestiges of capitalism and the ultimate 'whithering away' of the State.
- ↑ Steele, David Ramsay (September 1999). From Marx to Mises: Post Capitalist Society and the Challenge of Economic Calculation. [S.l.]: Open Court. p. 45. ISBN 978-0875484495.
Among Western journalists the term 'Communist' came to refer exclusively to regimes and movements associated with the Communist International and its offspring: regimes which insisted that they were not communist but socialist, and movements which were barely communist in any sense at all.
Verifique data em:|data=(ajuda) - ↑ Rosser, Mariana V. and J Barkley Jr. (23 July 2003). Comparative Economics in a Transforming World Economy. [S.l.]: MIT Press. 14 páginas. ISBN 978-0262182348.
Ironically, the ideological father of communism, Karl Marx, claimed that communism entailed the withering away of the state. The dictatorship of the proletariat was to be a strictly temporary phenomenon. Well aware of this, the Soviet Communists never claimed to have achieved communism, always labeling their own system socialist rather than communist and viewing their system as in transition to communism.
Verifique data em:|data=(ajuda) - ↑ Williams, Raymond (1983). «Socialism». Keywords: A vocabulary of culture and society, revised edition. [S.l.]: Oxford University Press. p. 289. ISBN 978-0-19-520469-8.
The decisive distinction between socialist and communist, as in one sense these terms are now ordinarily used, came with the renaming, in 1918, of the Russian Social-Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) as the All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks). From that time on, a distinction of socialist from communist, often with supporting definitions such as social democrat or democratic socialist, became widely current, although it is significant that all communist parties, in line with earlier usage, continued to describe themselves as socialist and dedicated to socialism.
- ↑ Nation, R. Craig (1992). Black Earth, Red Star: A History of Soviet Security Policy, 1917-1991. [S.l.]: Cornell University Press. pp. 85–6. ISBN 978-0801480072. Consultado em 19 December 2014. Cópia arquivada em 1 August 2019 Verifique data em:
|acessodata=, |arquivodata=(ajuda) - ↑ "North Korea". The World Factbook. Arquivado em 8 setembro 2018 no Wayback Machine.
- ↑ Dae-Kyu, Yoon (2003). «The Constitution of North Korea: Its Changes and Implications». Fordham International Law Journal. 27 (4): 1289–1305. Consultado em 10 August 2020 Verifique data em:
|acessodata=(ajuda) - ↑ Park, Seong-Woo (23 September 2009). «북 개정 헌법 '선군사상' 첫 명기» Bug gaejeong heonbeob 'seongunsasang' cheos myeong-gi [First stipulation of the 'Seongun Thought' of the North Korean Constitution] (em coreano). Radio Free Asia. Consultado em 10 August 2020 Verifique data em:
|acessodata=, |data=(ajuda) - ↑ Worden, Robert L. (2008). North Korea: A Country Study (PDF) 5th ed. Washington, D. C.: Library of Congress. p. 206. ISBN 978-0-8444-1188-0
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